Soxhlet Extraction Technique Research Articles

Pathway to reduce free fatty acid formation in Calophyllum inophyllum kernel oil: A renewable feedstock for biodiesel production

Calophyllum inophyllum kernels is a source of non-edible oil and possessed up to 73% oil content but its oil is usually marked with a high level of up to 30% free fatty acid (FFA), which is an hindrance to the effective conversion of the oil to biodiesel. This study therefore, proffers a pathway to achieve low levels of free fatty acids in the oil extracted from the kernels by adjustment of its drying conditions, leading to easier conversion of the oil to biodiesel. This is expected to enhance the industrial processes for production of biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum kernels oil. Oil was extracted from the kernels, which were previously dried under varied conditions, using Soxhlet extraction technique with n-hexane as solvent. The oil extracted was converted to biodiesel through acid esterification and base-catalysed transesterification. The properties of biodiesel that was subsequently produced was assessed using standard methods. Satisfactory results were obtained for important parameters that have been established to play significant roles in the quality of oil and biodiesel, such as FFA content (0.23), Iodine value (77.01 (gI2/100g), cloud point (−1.40 °C), pour point (−6.24 °C), and higher heating value (40.65 MJ/kg) for biodiesel obtained from kernels dried at 75 °C. The variations in the levels of FFA in the oils differ by as much as 69% and more than 10% improvement in the quantity of the biodiesel produced was obtained. The results demonstrated that drying conditions played a significant role in the quantity and properties of both the oil and biodiesel obtainable from the kernels. The resulting biodiesel met the Australian, ASTM and EN standards. The economical prospect of the proposed method would be seen in the higher quantity of viable dry kernels which will increase the volume of biodiesel obtainable and a drop in the cost of resources that would have been required for such chemical processes and time needed for dewaxing and degumming. The adoption of the right drying technique in a large scale industrial process is capable of improving the quantity and the properties of biodiesel that might be produced from the kernel.

Fatty acid composition, antibacterial and antioxidant potential of Atropa belladonna and Thymus linearis seeds grown in Kashmir

In this study fatty acid composition of petroleum ether (AP and TP) and biological potential (Antioxidant and antibacterial) of chloroform (AC and TC), methanol (AM and TM) extracts of Atropa belladonna L. and Thymus linearis Benth. respectively was obtained by Soxhlet extraction technique from seeds were investigated. Fatty acid profile was obtained by gas chromatography mass spectrometry, antioxidant potential (DPPH-2,2-di-phenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; ABTS-2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) and antibacterial activity against (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Escherichia coli and Klebesiella pneumonia) was also performed. Linoleic acid was dominantly found with 74.42% in AP and 84.39% in TP. In antioxidant assays, the dominant inhibition was shown by AM (84.98% and 83.90%) and TM (85.27% and 83.29%) as compared to BHT (93.72% and 90.87%) for DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging respectively at 200 µg/mL. Moreover, AM and TM extracts showed good antibacterial activity. In conclusion, these plants could be selected as an adequate species in agricultural system, in food and pharmaceutical industries.Graphic abstract

INCIDENCES OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN ROASTED PLANTAINS OBTAINED WITHIN OSOGBO METROPOLIS, NIGERIA

The present study was conducted to assess the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of PAHs contamination in roasted plantain collected from three different locations within Osogbo metropolis, Nigeria. The PAHs were extracted using Soxhlet extraction technique with n-hexane and dichloromethane (3:1) as the extracting solvent. A column, packed with silica gel, was used for clean-up process and the levels of the targeted PAHs were determined by a gas chromatograph–flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The result revealed that the concentrations of total PAHs detected in the roasted samples at location A, B, C were 3.958 μg/kg, 3.654 μg/kg and 3.217 μg/kg. The HMW carcinogenic PAHs constitute about 32% of the total PAHs in the roasted plantain samples where benzo(a)pyrene, which is a marker for carcinogenicity, was found to be 9%. Comparing these results with the regulatory limits, all the analyzed roasted plantain samples were found below the maximum residual limit (MRL) of 5 μg/kg, but the calculated carcinogenic risk (CR) presented value greater than 1×10-4, signifying health risk associated with the consumption of the roasted plantain. The major source of the PAHs using diagnostic ratios (Fla/Pyr and Ph/Ant) showed that the charcoal used in roasting is a major contributing factor to the high levels of PAHs detected in the roasted plantain samples.

Investigations of Light Intensities, Nutrient, and Carbon Sources Towards Microalgae Oil Production via Soxhlet Extraction Techniques

Aims: This study was carried out to study the optimized condition for microalgae cultivation in terms of light intensity, and nutrient supply. Also, use of a carbon source was studied to optimize the microalgae growth to produce microalgae with a high biomass productivity and a high lipid content. Background: Algae can be categorized into macroalgae and microalgae. Commonly, microalgae are used to produce biodiesel since microalgae can yield 5000-15000 of oil gallons compared to plant-based biomass as feedstock produced 50-500 oil gallon. Furthermore, microalgae do not face any food crisis and can be cultivated in any wasteland that is not suitable for agriculture throughout the year, compared to crops. Microalgae can also be cultivated in freshwater, saline water and wastewater. Methods: Microalgae cultivation was carried out with microalgae culture labelled as MX1, MX2, MX3, MX4 and were cultivated under high light intensities, whereas MY1, MY2, MY3, MY4 were cultivated under medium light intensity and MZ1, MZ2, MZ3 MZ4 became control culture that was cultivated under high light intensities and no light condition. Results: The effect of light intensity, NPK fertilizer, and glucose on microalgae’s biomass production will be observed simultaneously. At the end of cultivation, MX2 obtained the highest biomass of 97.186 g. The oil extraction yield is 9.66%. GC-MS analysis showed the presence of UFA and PUFA in the oil. Conclusion: Thus, future research is needed to improve the technique to increase the microalgae biomass and lipid to become the potential feedstock for the production of biodiesel.

Potency of the Leaf, Stem and Root Extracts of Petiveria alliacea Against Selected Microorganisms

Infectious diseases have contributed immensely to the rate of death globally in the past decades due to increased resistance to synthetic drugs. Hence, there is an urgent need to find a lasting solution to the problem of drug resistance, through the emergence of alternative medicine. One of such plant with biologically – active components against variety of diseases is Petiveria alliacea. It has been used to reduce inflammations and pains and also to eliminate bacteria, fungi, candida and viruses. The potency of the oils obtained from the leaves, stems and roots of this plant through (Soxhlet and Cold extraction methods) were subjected to test against certain micro-organisms, such as: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, as well as the anti-fungi test on Rhizopus sp., and Aspergillus niger. The cold hexane leaf extract and cold ethanol leaf extract were most effective at limiting the growth of Salmonella typhi and the Rhizopus sp. respectively with an MIC value of 3.125 μg/mL and MBC value of 6.25 μg/mL. The ethanol leaf extracts using Soxhlet technique were most effective at MIC value of 3.125 μg/mL on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Rhizopus sp., and Aspergillus niger. The ethanol leaf extracts using Soxhlet extraction technique were most effective at MIC value of 3.125 μg/mL on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli. Likewise, the hexane and ethanol cold leaf extracts were most effective in limiting the growth of Rhizopus sp. and Aspergillus niger with MIC value of 3.125 μg/mL and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) value of 6.25 μg/mL. The antioxidant property of the extracts was determined by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assay with ascorbic acid as the reference standard.

Wearable Strain Sensors Based on a Porous Polydimethylsiloxane Hybrid with Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene.

High-performance flexible strain sensors are urgently needed with the rapid development of wearable intelligent electronics. Here, a bifiller of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene (GR) for filling flexible porous polydimethylsiloxane (CNT-GR/PDMS) nanocomposites is designed and prepared for strain-sensing applications. The typical microporous structure was successfully constructed using the Soxhlet extraction technique, and the connected CNTs and GR constructed a perfect three-dimensional conductive network in the porous skeleton. As a result, the stretchability and sensitivity of the CNT-GR/PDMS-based strain sensors were well regulated based on the porous structure and the typical synergistic conductive network. Based on the destruction effect of the brittle synergistic conductive network located in the outer and inner layers of the cell skeleton and the contact effect between adjacent cells in different strain ranges, the prepared CNTs-GR/PDMS-based strain sensor exhibited superior gauge factors of 182.5, 45.6, 70.2, and 186.5 in the 0-3, 3-57, 57-90, and 90-120% strain regions, respectively. In addition, this material also exhibited an ultralow detection limit (0.5% strain), a fast response time (60 ms), good stability and durability (10,000 cycles), and frequency-/strain-dependent sensing performances, making it active for the detection of various external environments. Finally, the prepared porous CNTs-GR/PDMS-based strain sensor was attached to the skin to detect various human motions, such as wrist bending, finger bending, elbow bending, and knee bending, thereby demonstrating wide application prospects in smart wearable devices.

Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activities of mangrove plant (Rhizophora apiculata) against selected fish pathogenic bacteria

Rhizophora apiculata leaf extracts were tested on the isolated growth of S. agalactiae and E. coli and extraction of the bioactive compounds were performed using Soxhlet extraction technique with methanol (MtOH) as the organic solvent. The presence of various phytochemicals in bioactive constituents of the plant was detected using standard chemical procedures. The Kirby-Bauer test was used for the antibacterial assay, and an in vitro assay was conducted for minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC). Brine shrimp lethality assay evaluated the toxicity of R. apiculata. Antibiotic susceptibility test showed high rates of E. coli resistance to neomycin and sensitivity to tetracycline and amoxycilin, while S. agalactiae showed sensitivity to all antibiotics. Inhibition zones of R. apiculata leave extract against the microorganisms recorded in the range of 2-9 mm. Increasing the inhibition zone is dependent on increasing plant extract concentrations. The (MIC) testing range of R. apiculata was 6.25 mg/ml to 12.5 mg/ml against S. agalactiae and E. coli, respectively. The MBC/MIC ratio of S. agalactiae demonstrated to be bactericidal, and the MBC/MIC ratio of E. coli was bacteriostatic. R. apiculata recorded an LC50 value of 81 mg/ml. The findings of this study reveal the valuable metabolites found in mangrove leaves. The most important secondary metabolites are alkaloids, terpenoids and tannins as well as saponins and steroids, but not flavonoids. This study suggests that Rhizophora apiculata has the potential to be a valuable candidate in the discovery of antimicrobial compounds against fish pathogens.

Antimicrobial and Antioxidant properties of Petiveria alliacea

The leaf, stem and root decoctions of Petiveria alliacea (referred to as Anamu or Apacin (Guatemala), Guinea–Hen weed (English), Awogba or Ojusaju (Yoruba), kanunfari (Hausa) and Akwa-ose (Igbo) have been used as a diuretic, antispasmodic, sedative, analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents in traditional medicine. Cold maceration and Soxhlet extraction techniques were used to obtain oils from the leaf, stem and root of P. alliacea. The oils were analysed for their antimicrobial properties using brothmicrodilution technique while their antioxidant properties were determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) tests. The antimicrobial tests on the following micro-organisms Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli,as well as the anti-fungi test on Rhizopus sp., and Aspergillus niger, showed that the hexane and ethanol cold leaf extracts were most effective in limiting the growth of Salmonella typhi with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)value of 3.125 µg/mL and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)value of 6.25 µg/mL. The ethanol leaf extracts using Soxhlet extraction technique were most effective at MIC value of 3.125 µg/mL on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli. Likewise, the hexane and ethanolcold leaf extracts were most effective in limiting the growth of Rhizopus sp. and Aspergillus niger with MIC value of 3.125 µg/mL and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) value of 6.25 µg/mL.

Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities of Cosmos Caudatus extracts

This study aims to investigate the in-vitro antimicrobial potential of Cosmos caudatus against pathogenic bacteria, its antioxidant activity and cytotoxic effect on cancer cell lines. In vitro antimicrobial activities of ethanol and water extracts of Cosmos caudatus herb against pathogenic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli were tested by agar well diffusion. Antioxidant properties of the extracts was evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging activity method. Additionally, cytotoxic activity of the extracts on HCT 116 colorectal carcinoma cell line was determined by (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. Vero cells were used as a control. The quantification of these extracts showed that this plant is rich in secondary metabolites. Moreover, the conventional soxhlet extraction technique was more effective than maceration and ultrasonic assisted extraction technique. In antioxidants assay, both the ethanolic and water extracts through ultrasonic extraction method exhibited the highest DPPH free radical scavenging capacity compared to maceration and sohxlet extraction method. In antimicrobial assay, both the water and ethanol extracts showed no inhibitory action against the tested pathogenic bacteria. For anticancer activity, the F2, F7 and F8 fractions showed potent dose dependent cytotoxicity on Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells with IC50 value of 15.53 ± 0.4, 32.72 ± 0.3 and 34.16 ± 1.4 μg/mL, respectively.

Chemical lean determination of boneless beef and lamb using a halogen moisture analyser

Context Chemical lean (CL) is an important metric used by the Australian meat industry to describe fat content of meat product. It is a minimum meat specification included in contracts between Australian vendors of bulk packed boneless manufacturing meat and overseas or domestic buyers and can be regarded as the complement of chemically determined fat in meat (% fat, CL = 100-% fat). The microwave moisture method is commonly used for measuring CL content of meat in Australian abattoirs, relying on a relationship between CL and moisture content of boneless meat. It is regarded as a quick and easy method to use. More recently, newer methods for moisture analysis have become available which may also be suitable for CL determination, including commercial halogen moisture analysers (HMAs). HMAs use a halogen lamp as a source of infrared radiation that is absorbed by a sample, which then results in moisture loss. Aims This study aimed to compare the use of HMAs for CL determination of beef and lamb to that obtained from Soxhlet extraction technique, which is the AOAC Final Action Method for determining fat in meat and accepted as the reference method for fat determination. Additionally, the study sought to validate the use of HMAs as a method for CL determination in the Australian meat industry. Methods HMAs were used to determine the moisture content of six beef and one lamb samples, which were used to calculate the CL content. The fat content of the samples was also determined using Soxhlet fat extraction. Passing-Bablok regression and Bland-Altman plot analysis were used to identify any differences and bias between the methods, respectively. Key results Passing-Bablok regression showed that there was no difference between methods, while Bland-Altman plot analysis indicated no bias was evident between the methods. While some differences were apparent between approaches either due to using moisture as a proxy for fat/CL compared with continual solvent extraction or sample heterogeneity, sufficient agreement existed between results to lie within an acceptance criterion of 1.2 CL units. Conclusion The use of HMAs was substantiated as a method for CL determination in the Australian meat industry and has been accredited by AUS-MEAT Ltd as a method for boneless beef and lamb. Implications HMAs can be used in the Australian meat industry for CL determination and represent a relatively simpler and easier approach for this important industry metric.

Comparative evaluation of the hepatoprotective activity of methanol leaf extracts of Pterocarpus santalinoides DC obtained by cold maceration and Soxhlet extraction techniques

Comparative evaluation of the hepatoprotective activity of methanol leaf extracts of Pterocarpus santalinoides DC obtained by cold maceration and Soxhlet extraction techniques

Phytochemical, physicochemical, and fatty acids composition analyses of four species of Ficus genus from the arid zone of Rajasthan

Background: With the advancement of the oilseed economy, there is a great deal of interest in using unusual and underexploited sources of seed oils. The seed oils of different species of Ficus genus are well known for their nutritional and medicinal potential. Aims: The aim of the present research work is to investigate the phytochemical, physicochemical, and fatty acids composition of the seed oil from four different species of Ficus genus from the arid zone of Rajasthan with a view to analyze their nutritional and therapeutic potential. Materials and Methods: The seed oils of Ficus benghalensis, Ficus benjamina, Ficus carica, and Ficus racemosa were extracted by soxhlet extraction technique using petroleum ether as a solvent. The fatty acid methyl esters were obtained by transesterification process and their fatty acid profiles were studied by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique. Results: The phytochemical analysis showed carbohydrate, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and tannin in the seed oil of these Ficus species. The study suggested the presence of unsaturated fatty acids in F. benjamina (71.72%), F. racemosa (70.44%), F. carica (59.00%), and F. benghalensis (55.32%). Conclusion: The major amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids in F. benjamina (60.81%) and alpha linolenic acid in F. carica (12.74%) indicates their nutritional and medicinal values.

In vitro antimicrobial assay of leaves, bark and fruits of Ficus auriculata collected from two different regions of Uttarakhand

The present study is to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of Ficus auriculata fruits, leaves and bark collected from two different regions of Uttarakhand i.e, Almora and Haldwani. These parts of plants extracted in hexane, chloroform and methanol by successive soxhlet extraction technique. For antimicrobial assay, activity was done by agar well diffusion method against four human pathogenic bacteria (two gram positive and two gram negative bacteria).The results concluded that Almora leaves hexane extract possessed the higher antibacterial potential on increasing dose dependent manner at 800µg/ml (15.7±0.25 mm) Haldwani fruits hexane extract (15.5±0.25 mm) against E. coli. Almora bark chloroform extract inhibits the bacteria E. coli and B. subtilis with maximum zone (14±0.11 mm) and (12.4±0.15 mm). Haldwani leaves methanol extract showed the maximum inhibition zone(13±0.57 mm) against E. coli and Haldwani bark methanol extract showed the maximum inhibition zone (12.9±0.057 mm). These naturally occurring antimicrobials agents due to its safe and non toxic nature.

Extracts of M. pulegium (L.) and M. spicata(L.): Effect of Extraction Conditions on Phenolics and Flavonoïds Contents and Their Antioxidant Power

The correlation between the contents of polyphenols and flavonoids and the degree of antioxidant activity of various extracts from M. pulegium (L.) and M. spicata (L.), obtained by different solvents and methods, was investigated. The crude extracts were prepared by mixing areal parts in powder with methanol/water solution. They were subjected later to liquid-liquid extraction via solvents with progressive polarity (chloroform, ethyl acetate and n-butanol) by maceration and soxhlet techniques. The total phenol and flavonoids contents from crude extracts and their fractions were determined by using Folin-Ciocalteu and AlCl3 assays respectively. The antioxidant activity of extracts was evaluated by DPPH• (1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging test. This activity was measured by inhibition concentration 50% (IC50) values. Generally, higher extract yields were obtained by the soxhlet extraction technique; the crude extracts recorded the best yields for M. pulegium by soxhlet (26.37%) and maceration (13%) while for M. spicata, the aqueous extract by soxhlet (34.9%) and crude one by maceration (9.4%) showed the higher yields. The higher phenolic and flavonoids contents were found in crude extracts by maceration for both mints whereas by soxhlet, the ethyl acetate and/or n-butanol extracts demonstrated the strongest contents. These extracts, rich in flavonoids, showed a positive correlation since they have exhibited better antioxidant activity compared to ascorbic acid as the antioxidant reference (IC50= 0.051 mg/ml).

Application of ultrasound towards improving the composition of phenolic compounds and enhancing in vitro bioactivities of Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél extracts

This study aimed to investigate the effects of conventional (Soxhlet) and ultrasound-assisted (UAE) extractions on the composition, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory bioactivities of Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél (grey oyster mushroom) extracts. The ultrasound extract E0 (40 min, 300 W) demonstrated the highest antioxidant ability in the Folin-Ciocalteu assay (11.07 mg/g GAE). In comparison, ultrasound extract E3 (30 min, 140 W) showed the highest antioxidant activity in the reducing power assay (0.23 absorbance unit). The E2 extract (50 min, 140 W) had the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity at 15.83%, while the E1 extract (30 min, 460 W) had the best lipid peroxidation inhibition (MDA level of only 7.44 μg/mg LDL). Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) showed the presence of various phenolic compounds in the Soxhlet and UAE extracts, but hydroxybenzoic acids were found only in the UAE extracts. The UAE extract E2, even at 6.25 μg/mL, showed superior anti-inflammatory activity in its ability to significantly suppress the production of nitric oxide in LPS-stimulated murine macrophage cells, RAW 264.7. UAE extracts E2 and E3 also showed remarkable anti-inflammatory activity, as both suppressed NF-κB. Most of the reported studies so far employed conventional techniques to obtain P. pulmonarius extracts, but ultrasound is a greener alternative option as it shortened extraction time, lowered extraction temperature, and reduced solvent consumption. The application of ultrasound for the extraction of bioactive compounds improved the composition of extracts as well as the bioactivities of P. pulmonarius. • Soxhlet and ultrasound extraction techniques were compared to extract bioactive compounds of Pleurotus pulmonarius . • Ultrasound extracts demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity. • The tests included Folin-Ciocalteu, DPPH-radical scavenging, reducing power, and lipid peroxidation assays. • In vitro cell work was done using LPS-stimulated murine macrophage cells, RAW 264.7. • Ultrasound extracts showed superior anti-inflammatory activities by decreasing nitric oxide levels and NF-κB activation. • Ultrasound enhanced the types of metabolites in the ethanolic extracts of P. pulmonarius .

Diamondoid geochemistry of Niger Delta source rocks: implication for petroleum exploration

ABSTRACT Investigation on the use of diamondoids to assess the extent of thermal maturity, depositional environment, and origin of Niger Delta source rocks was carried out. This was done to evaluate the significant of diamondoids in petroleum exploration in the basin. Pulverized rock samples selected from four Niger Delta oil wells, were extracted with Soxhlet extraction technique. The biomarkers content of saturated hydrocarbons fraction was assayed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) while the diamondoids content was analyzed using GC-MS-MS. The distribution of saturated hydrocarbons; n-alkanes, pristane, pyhtane, steranes, and terpanes revealed that samples from well AW were sourced from mixed terrestrial/marine organic matter while samples from wells OP, GB, and OT were sourced largely from terrestrial organic matter origin. The Pr/Ph ratio values indicated that the organic matter of wells AW and OP samples were deposited under suboxic conditions while those of wells GB and OT were deposited under anoxic conditions. Hopane and sterane thermal maturity geochemical parameters showed that the organic matter in source rocks from the four wells are thermally mature. Diamondoids source parameters indicated that well AW source rock samples had mixed marine/terrestrial organic matter input, while samples from wells OP, GB, OT were sourced from terrestrial organic matter, which is in perfect agreement with the results of other source geochemical parameters, thus indicating that diamondoids are good tools in determining the origin of petroleum. Diamondoid maturity parameters showed that all the samples from the four wells are thermally mature with maturity level ranging from early to main oil window. This study revealed that diamondoids can be used to evaluate petroleum occurrence in the study area or any other sedimentary basins.

Impact Assessment of Smoking Duration on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH’s) Contaminations of Clarias gariepinus

Smoked catfish (Clarias gariepinus) was examined with the aim of determining the effect of smoking duration on the extent of accumulation of the sixteen US EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The levels of PAHs in the smoked catfish samples were obtained using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector after extracting with nhexane by soxhlet extraction technique. The result showed detection of all the 16 PAHs in the smoked catfish. Higher molecular weight PAHs having ≥4 rings showed considerably higher concentration as compared to PAHs that had a lower ring. The mean concentrations of total PAH in the investigated smoked catfish showed mean values of 1.91 μg/kg, 2.10 μg/kg, 2.32 μg/kg, 2.58 μg/kg respectively. The ΣBaPeq (0.113) and ΣPAH (10.642 μg/kg) levels are within the range of European Commission Regulations maximum tolerable limits of 2 to 5 μg/kg respectively. The result indicated that the PAH accumulation is directly proportional to the smoking period. Diagnostic ratio (Ant/(Ant+Phen) ratio <0.10) conducted showed wood combustion as the main sources of contamination in the analyzed smoked catfish.

A RIPENESS STUDY OF OIL PALM FRESH FRUIT AT THE BUNCH DIFFERENT POSITIONS

The paper aims to study the position of the optimum oil palm ripeness at the bunch different positions. This information is essential to complete a measurement procedure to detect oil palm fresh fruit bunch (FFB) maturity so that the detection devices can directly measure the optimal mature position as a representative of the entire FFB characteristics. In this study, the oil palm FFB (Elaeis guineensis Jacq. var. tenera) with the various ripeness stages (4 until 22 weeks after anthesis) were collected and divided from three positions, i.e., proximal, central and distal. Moreover, each fruit in each of these positions was subjected to sample preparation to identify water and oil content. The water and oil content were completed based on the oven test method and the Soxhlet extraction technique, respectively. The optimum ripeness position is determined based on the lowest water content and the highest oil content. Based on the analysis, during the process of oil palm maturation occurs a decrease in water content and an increase in oil content. In addition, the average water content of palm fruit varies greatly depending on its position based on the analysis, i.e., proximal (45.38±5.62%), central (35.30±3.34%) and distal (41.98±2.57%). The average oil content of oil palm fruit in the central position is higher oil content (25.10±1.72%) compared to the proximal (10.00±0.77%) and distal position (13.77±1.22%). We suspect that the chemical content differences of palm fruit in various positions are due to the inequality of the respiration rate and ethylene production throughout FFB. In addition, overall it can be concluded that the fruit in the central FFB position has an optimal ripeness level compared to the proximal and distal position. Thus, the measurement position recommended in evaluating palm maturity is at the central position of FFB.

Potentials of moringa (<I>Moringa oleifera</I>) seed oil in enhancing the nutritional quality and stability of soybean oil

Partial hydrogenation method has been used to improve the stability of soybean oil, though it results in the production of trans-fatty acid. The objective of this study was to establish the potential of moringa oil to improve the stability and nutritional quality of soybean oil. Oil samples were extracted from sundried soybean and Moringa seeds using Soxhlet extraction techniques. Soybean powder was mixed with Moringa powder at ratio 50:50 and 70:30, and the oil was extracted afterward. The fatty acid profile of the extracted oil from these blends was studied using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrophotometry (GC-MS) technique. The results showed that commercial soybean oil and the blended soybean/moringa oil of ratio 50:50 and 70:30 had a polyunsaturated fatty acid of 52.70%, 22.18% and 35.73 % respectively; monounsaturated fatty acid 27.22%, 46.61% and 58.79% respectively; saturated fatty acid 19.01%, 19.02% and 17.86% respectively. Also, trans-fatty acid (0.003-0.395%) was obtained in the commercial soybean oil sample. The blended soybean/moringa oil offers a better option than the use of partially hydrogenation in commercial soybean oil.
 Keywords: Moringa seed oil, soybean oil, partial hydrogenation, trans-fatty acid, Oil blending.

Extraction of phytosterols and tocopherols from rapeseed oil waste by supercritical CO2 plus co-solvent: A comparison with conventional solvent extraction

In the present study, modified extraction methods using supercritical CO2 were investigated in order to obtain high-added value compounds from rapeseed oil deodorizer distillate and comparisons were done with modified Soxhlet extraction (solvent extraction + silica). For supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), the optimal extraction parameters were temperature of 40 °C, pressure of 350 bar (for phytosterols), 400 bar (for tocopherol), 5 wt% ethanol as co-solvent, and saponification pretreatment. The optimized SFE procedure led to the recovery of three main phytosterols (50 wt % β-sitosterol, 23.91 wt % Brassicasterol, and 36.25 wt % Campesterol) and only α-tocopherol. Moreover, there was no synergistic effect with saponification pretreatment + co-solvent and the efficiency and concentration of target compounds were less than supercritical CO2 + co-solvent. Also, comparative Data showed that the efficiency of phytosterols and tocopherols was approximately three times higher (p < 0.05) in SFE relative to modified Soxhlet extraction. Furthermore, the use of ethanol (5 wt %) as co-solvent, improved phytosterols and tocopherol efficiency and purity. The SFE technique offers various advantages over the modified Soxhlet extraction technique, including increasing the solubility of tocopherols and sterols by using CO2+ co-solvent, minimized usage of toxic organic solvents and increased purity of extracted products.