Sows In Crates Research Articles

Brazilian panorama of pig breeding sector: a cross-sectional study about specific aspects of biosecurity, facilities, management, feeding, and performance

The objective of this study was to identify the degree of adoption of different production factors in commercial pig breeding farms in Brazil. Data were collected from 150 farms, totaling 135,168 sows, including general information, labor, genetics, biosecurity, facilities, management, feeding and productive performance for the year 2015. The farms were located in the South (42%), Southeast (45.3%) and Midwest (12.7%) of Brazil. The amplitude of the herds varied between 100 and 6,360 productive sows, with an average of 901. Their predominant profile was independent production with hired labor, an average of 88 sows per employee, facilities with more than 15 years and no reform in the last decade, and located less than 5 km from other units. Animal replacement was performed mainly by purchase and without adoption of a quarantine period. Predominated farms housed the sows in crates in the pre-mating period and in pens or crates/pens during gestation. Both solid and slatted floors were used in these phases, predominantly using concrete as material; the use of slatted floors (either concrete, metal, or plastic) predominated in the farrowing facilities. Gutter-type feeders that also operated as water drinkers were predominant in the pre-mating and gestation periods; in farrowing facilities wet-dry feeders were widespread. Two-thirds of the farms did not have a cooling system in farrowing facilities. For the piglets, the heating system above the animal (lamps and bell rings) prevailed to the detriment of heat floors. More than 60% of farms make their own feed and feed gestating sows once a day. Only 29.33% of the farms perform echography for diagnosis of gestation. Birth attendance was routine; however, one-third of the farms did not have attendance through the night. Batch weaning was practiced by 15.44% of the farms. More than half of the farms reported that they did not intervene in the colostrum supply of piglets born weak or small, but 95.33% piglets were transferred among litters considering their size and quantity. Teeth resection, tail docking, and surgical castration procedures were routine. The performance indexes were consistent with what is perceived by national surveys.

Farrowing pens used with and without short-term fixation impact on reproductive traits of sows

In the present study two farrowing pens with movable crates were tested as two different farrowing systems (with short-term fixation and without) regarding reproductive traits in two parts. The aim of Part 1 was to compare the reproductive traits of sows housed in the farrowing pens without fixation of the sows (FF, free-farrowing system; n = 121) and sows housed in farrowing crates with permanent fixation (FC, farrowing crate system; n = 127). Part 2 compares the reproductive traits of sows housed in the same farrowing pens as in Part 1 but used with a short-term fixation in which the sows were fixated in the movable crates from one day ante partum until four days post partum (SF, short-term fixation system; n = 47) and sows housed in farrowing crates with permanent fixation (FC; n = 79). The number of piglets born alive, stillborn piglets, weaned piglets and piglet losses were recorded. Additionally, the individual birth and weaning weights of all piglets were documented. The results of Part 1 (FF vs. FC) show that sows of the FF system had significantly higher total piglet losses and a higher number of crushed piglets compared to sows of the FC system (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 88% of all piglet losses were documented during the first four days post partum. The total piglet losses in Part 2 (SF vs. FC) did not differ between the SF system and the FC system. The results of the present study show that sows of the fee-farrowing system had higher piglet losses compared to sows in farrowing crate system with permanent fixation. However, a fixation of the sows for only one day ante partum until four days post partum showed no differences in the piglet losses compared to sows fixed permanently in crates. It can be concluded that a short-term fixation of sows in crates of four days is sufficient to minimise piglet losses.

Observations of sows and piglets housed in farrowing pens with temporary crating or farrowing crates on a commercial farm

Alternatives to farrowing crates have been developed to improve sow welfare. These alternative farrowing systems have been designed to provide more space, allowing sows greater freedom of movement during lactation. This experiment was part of a larger study comparing sow and piglet performance and behaviour in two farrowing systems. In one farrowing system, sows were housed in crates from 5days pre- until 28days post-farrowing (N=15 sows and 187 piglets born). In the other farrowing system, sows were initially housed in crates from 3days pre-farrowing until day 4 of lactation, after which they were loose within a pen until weaning at 28days (N=16 sows and 178 piglets born). The objective was to compare the behaviour of sows and piglets in crates and pens during days 1–6 post-farrowing. Sows in both systems spent the majority of their time lying (88–94% of the time in crates, and 72–94% of the time in pens) and there was no difference between crates and pens for the amount of time sows spent standing (P=0.20), sitting (P=0.63), or lying (P=0.45) during days 1–6. Sows in pens investigated (P=0.03) and touched (P<0.01) their piglets more than sows in crates. Piglets in pens tended to spend less time inactive in open areas of the farrowing space compared to piglets in crates (P=0.04). The current study demonstrated that the farrowing system design can influence sow behaviour, with pens allowing for more interactions between sows and their piglets.

Confinement of lactating sows in crates for 4 days after farrowing reduces piglet mortality

To reduce mortality among suckling piglets, lactating sows are traditionally housed in farrowing crates. Alternatively, lactating sows can be housed in farrowing pens where the sow is loose to ensure more behavioural freedom and consequently a better welfare for the sow, although under commercial conditions, farrowing pens have been associated with increased piglet mortality. Most suckling piglets that die do so within the first week of life, so potentially lactating sows do not have to be restrained during the entire lactation period. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether confinement of the sow for a limited number of days after farrowing would affect piglet mortality. A total of 210 sows (Danish Landrace × Danish Yorkshire) were farrowed in specially designed swing-aside combination farrowing pens measuring 2.6 m × 1.8 m (combi-pen), where the sows could be kept loose or in a crate. The sows were either: (a) loose during the entire experimental period, (b) crated from days 0 to 4 postpartum, (c) crated from days 0 to 7 postpartum or (d) crated from introduction to the farrowing pen to day 7 postpartum. The sows and their subsequent litters were studied from introduction to the combi-pen ∼1 week before expected farrowing and until 10 days postpartum. Confinement period of the sow failed to affect the number of stillborn piglets; however, sows that were crated after farrowing had fewer live-born mortality deaths (P < 0.001) compared with the sows that were loose during the experimental period. The increased piglet mortality among the loose sows was because of higher mortality in the first 4 days after farrowing. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that crating the sow for 4 days postpartum was sufficient to reduce piglet mortality.

Alternative housing for sows and litters: 2. Effects of a communal piglet area on pre- and post-weaning behaviour and performance

We conducted an experiment to determine how allowing piglets access to a communal area affects pre-weaning and post-weaning behaviour and performance. Litters were housed in pens with sows in crates until piglets reached 11 days of age. For 10 experimental cohorts, barriers between the pens of three litters were removed allowing piglets to mingle freely in a central area. For the 10 control cohorts (also three litters each), litters were not allowed to mix before weaning. There was little aggression when experimental litters were allowed to mix, and piglets played and rested in mixed-litter groups. Time spent in the common area increased from approximately 20% just after mixing (12 days old) to approximately 45% at day 26 (week 4; P<0.001). Experimental piglets were nursed less often than controls, especially during the later stages of lactation ( P<0.01). However, there was no difference in the amount of creep feed consumed or rate of weight gain before weaning. After weaning, experimental piglets ate more solid food than controls (approximately 70 g/day more during the second week after weaning, P<0.05), and showed a non-significant tendency to gain more weight (approximately 50 g/day). As a second comparison, piglets were either kept in single litter groups after weaning, or mixed with other litters from the same cohort. When control litters were mixed after weaning, piglets spent almost 60% more time in aggressive behaviour than when litter-mates were kept together, but no such difference occurred for the experimental litters (interaction P<0.05). Thus, the experimental housing treatment allows for mixing at an early age (much as occurs in nature) with little apparent conflict, provides piglets with a socially enriched pre-weaning environment, and helps avoid fighting between mixed piglets at weaning. The system also slightly lowers demands on the sow during lactation (in terms of a reduced nursing frequency) and slightly increases intake of solid food by piglets after weaning.

Effects of space allocation and temperature on periparturient maternal behaviors, steroid concentrations, and piglet growth rates.

Preparturient sows were randomly assigned to either a farrowing crate (n = 12) or farrowing pen (n = 12) across cool and hot seasons (with or without drip cooling) to study space allocation and temperature effects on periparturient maternal behaviors, steroid concentrations, and piglet growth rates. Concentrations of estradiol-17 beta (E2 beta), progesterone (P4), and cortisol were quantified in blood collected from surgically implanted vena cava cannulas. Sows were videotaped from 2 h before to 2 h after farrowing. Similar periparturient behaviors were displayed by all sows, regardless of farrowing environment. Sows in pens had lower (P < .05) prepartum P4 concentrations from d -6 to the day preceding farrowing and a reduced (P < .05) piglet birth interval compared with sows in crates (12.95 +/- 1.35 min vs 18.31 +/- 2.21 min, respectively). Additionally, compared with multiparous sows in crates, multiparous sows in pens weaned heavier piglets (P < .05). Estradiol-17 beta concentrations were lower (P < .01) throughout lactation during hot weather for sows with or without drip cooling, averaging 9.30 pg/mL and 8.57 pg/mL, respectively, compared with 18.65 pg/mL for sows during cool weather. This decrease in E2 beta concentration in sows during hot weather was correlated with an extended (P < .05) interval from weaning to first estrus for the sows in hot weather compared to sows during cool weather. Cortisol concentrations decreased progressively during lactation and were not associated with litter weight gains or the interval between weaning and first estrus.

The effect of environment on behaviour, plasma cortisol and prolactin in parturient sows

Nest-building in the pig is thought to be stimulated by a pre-parturient surge in prolactin. There is concern that sows in crates may experience psychological stress as a result of physical interference with nest-building. Thirty-three gilts were implanted with jugular catheters approximately 10–14 days before expected date of parturition (EPD). On day 5 before EPD, gilts were moved into either conventional farrowing crates without bedding (treatment C; n=16) or pens allowing freedom of movement with bedding (treatment P; n=17). The animals were blood sampled on the day before and the day after introduction to the treatments. Blood and behaviour sampling was resumed 48 h before EPD and continued until 4 h post-commencement of farrowing. As with previous studies gilts in both environments were more active ( P<0.001) and performed more substrate-directed behaviour in the pre-parturient period ( P<0.001). Gilts in pens spent considerable amounts of time in straw-directed behaviour, and gilts in crates increased amounts of floor- and fixture-directed behaviour (both P<0.001). Prolactin was not affected by treatment and increased in both environments over the same time period as this substrate-directed behaviour. However, the causal role of prolactin in nest-building must now be questioned given that a number of individuals showed no increase in prolactin over the 48 h before EPD, but still showed an increase in substrate-directed activity. Cortisol was strongly affected by treatment with treatment C having elevated total cortisol over much of the pre-parturient period ( P<0.001). Cortisol also increased in penned animals during parturition. There were no consistent correlations among behaviour, prolactin and cortisol. The general increase in cortisol in the early post-partum period may suggest that parturition in itself has stress-inducing aspects. The additional rise in cortisol found in the crated sows may indicate that the close confinement of the crate, by interfering with the expression of maternal behaviour, induces psychological stress. There was no evidence that the elevated cortisol response in crated gilts extended beyond the end of parturition.

The behaviour of primiparous sows around farrowing in response to restraint and straw bedding

The behaviour of 24 primiparous sows around parturition was examined from continuous video-records to investigate the effects of accommodation type (farrowing crate vs pen) and substrate (straw vs no straw), in a factorial experiment, on sow behaviours that may influence piglet survival. The experiment was part of a larger experiment involving 64 sows and litters, which examined the effects of the farrowing/lactation environment on sow behaviour, and piglet survival and growth to weaning. During the 24 h pre-partum, sows spent less time side lying (29.3 vs 42.3% of observations; P<0.01) and more time standing (26.8 vs 17.2%; P<0.05) in the absence of straw bedding compared with in the presence of straw bedding. Sows in crates compared with pens, changed posture more frequently (265 vs 180 times per sow; P<0.01). The occurrence of pawing at the bare floor was greater in crates than in pens (0.6 vs 0.3% of observations; P<0.05), and in the absence than in the presence of straw bedding (0.6 vs 0.3%; P<0.05). Rooting/nosing at the floor/bars occurred less in crates than in pens (4.5 vs 8.1%; P<0.01), and more in the absence than in the presence of straw (11.3 vs 1.3%; P<0.01). The manipulation of straw by sows in the straw-added treatments was recorded during 14.2% of observations. In the 24 h before farrowing, sows performed less ‘nesting-like’ behaviour (paw, root/nose and straw-directed behaviours combined) in crates than in pens (11.1 vs 16.9%; P<0.02), while the addition of straw tended to increase prepartum nesting-like behaviour (11.9 vs 16.1%; P<0.08). The data suggest that factors in the environment of the peri-parturient sow affect the quantity of pre-partum nesting-like behaviour, such as root/nose/paw behaviours and manipulation of straw. However, the fact that environments that elicited more maternal behaviour did not promote piglet survival, suggested that piglet survival may be more affected by the structural/thermal environment than by the sow's behaviour.

Nest site choice by farrowing sows offered cubicles or parallel walls

Freedom of movement and the opportunity to express normal behaviours are important requirements for any housing system which satisfies the welfare codes (MAFF, 1983). Intensive pig production systems generally house farrowing sows in crates to minimise the probability that piglets will be crushed. To satisfy the welfare codes there is, therefore, a need to develop a loose housing system which satisfies a multiplicity of conditions. It must give the sow unrestrained movement, allow nest building activities, provide physical protection and warm environmental conditions for the young piglets. In a previous choice trial sows sited their nests within cubicles rather than a corner or beside a straight wall (Hunt and Petchey, 1989). In another trial they were offered an arrangement of parallel walls spaced 0.55,0.95 or 1.35 m apart, most sows (0.44) chose to farrow between the 0.55 m spaced walls (Petchey, 1991). Sows making this choice (ie 0.55 m spacing) also exhibited more nest building behaviours and built significantly bigger nests (P&lt;0.05). The trial reported here offers sows the preferred sites of the two previous trials.

Stereotyped behaviour, social interactions and suckling pattern of pigs housed in groups or in single crates

The frequency of stereotypies, the nature of social interactions and whether sows or piglets initiate and terminate successful sucklings were compared. Sows on a commercial farm were housed in either crates or pens and studied for a year. Our observations indicated that sows in crates developed significantly more stereotypies (14.9 per sow-hour) than sows in pens (0.3 per sow-hour). Vacuum chewing was the most prevalent stereotypy observed (69%). Seventy-seven percent of the stereotypies were recorded before feedings. Frequency scanning resulted in fewer stereotypies per sow-hour than direct continuous sampling, with the exception of dog-sitting position. This finding suggests that frequency scanning is a superior method for sampling stereotyped behaviour than direct continuous sampling. Sows in crates had significantly more aggressive interactions (0.8 per sow-hour) than sows in pens (0.3 per sow-hour). Housing design did not influence the proportion of successful sucklings. Sows initiated significantly more often (77%) successful sucklings than piglets (23%). Our observations confirm that providing straw and space for exercise reduced the frequency of stereotypies (14.9 per sow-hour), but did not completely suppress them (0.3 per sow-hour). The results obtained confirmed previous reports indicating that housing design influences the frequency of stereotypies and the nature of social interactions between sows.

Suckling behaviour of sows in farrowing crates and straw-bedded pens

The behaviour of 18 primiparous Large White (LW) or LW × Duroc sows and their litters was observed during 6 days in lactation (1, 2, 3, 7, 14 and 21) in two housing treatments: (1) farrowing crate (1.6 m × 2.2 m) without straw: (2) farrowing pen (2.8 m × 2.8 m) with straw added. After farrowing, litter size was standardized to nine or ten piglets. Sows in crates spent less ( P < 0.01) time performing rapid suckling grunts between 09:00 and 13:00 h on observation days, and had shorter ( P < 0.001) bouts of this behaviour than sows in pens with straw. Litters in the crate treatment spent less ( P < 0.03) time performing rapid sucking movements (drinking) and displayed shorter ( P < 0.01) bouts of drinking than litters in pens with straw. Piglet location within the pen/crate was affected by treatment: litters in crates, particularly on the first day of lactation, spent more time ( P < 0.01) in the heated creep area and less ( P < 0.01) time in the open away from the creep area, and away from the close proximity of the sow, than litters in the pen treatment. The observed increase in rapid sucking movements (drinking) by litters in the pen treatment did not result in an increased weight gain by piglets. It was concluded that the (apparent) increase in milk intake was not partitioned to growth, but may have been used by piglets to maintain body temperature with the increased time piglets spent away from the creep and the sow in the pen treatment.

The influence of straw, cloth tassel, or both on the prepartum behavior of sows

Three experiments were conducted to examine the material-directed behavior of prepartum sows. Eight of 12 prepartum sows in pens abruptly began to take straw from a basket and used it to construct nests on the day of farrowing. All sows engaged in similar amounts of rooting, pawing, and typical prepartum behavior. Rooting at straw was the predominant activity, regardless of whether nest construction resulted. For 13 sows in crates fitted with a cloth tassel, tassel-pulling increased significantly during the last 12 h before delivery, and its temporal pattern was similar to that of nest building by sows in pens given straw. The prepartum behavior of sows in pens furnished with straw in a basket, cloth tassel, both, or neither, was also compared. Sows offered straw directed most activity at it. Sows offered a tassel but no straw nosed and pulled it more than sows offered both, and tore, rooted, and pawed at pieces of cloth. Although the direction of activity depended on the material provided, the overall amount of activity was unaffected by treatment. Results of these experiments suggest that on the day of farrowing, behavior patterns directed at nesting material may be important to the sow, even if they do not result in nest construction.