Collapse Of The USSR Research Articles

An Overview of the Eurasian Economic Union as an Economic Integration Supranational Organization

The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), founded on May 29, 2014, represents a significant effort to enhance economic growth and prosperity among former Soviet states, notably Kazakhstan, Belarus, and Russia. Tracing its origin from the dissolution of the USSR and the subsequent establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in 1991, the EAEU emerged after overcoming initial challenges faced by the CIS, formalizing its structure in 2015. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the EAEU's historical evolution, institutional framework, and the dynamics of its economic integration. By examining the EAEU's impact on member economies, including achievements like the creation of a unified labour market and increased trade volumes, the study stresses its role in advancing regional economic cooperation. It also addresses persistent challenges such as disparities in energy resources and the union's limited supranational authority. Furthermore, this paper draws comparisons between the EAEU and the European Union (EU), offering perceptions into their differing organizational structures and levels of integration. Through this comparative lens, it elucidates how each union shapes regional dynamics and influences global economic relations.

Foreign Policy of Germany towards Kazakhstan

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, a large number of newly formed states appeared on the geopolitical map of the world, some of which are located in Central Asia. As one of the largest and most influential countries in Europe, Germany sought to establish strong economic, political and cultural ties with these countries. The author pays attention to the stages of development of bilateral relations from the early 90s to the present.Aim. The aim of this study is to identify key aspects of German foreign policy in the region, focusing on relations with Kazakhstan.Tasks. Study the main stages of the development of diplomatic relations between Germany and Kazakhstan. Identify the current state of relations between Germany and Kazakhstan. Explore possible expansion of economic ties and prospects for future cooperation. Show the importance of studying the foreign policy of Germany in relation to Kazakhstan for the Russian Federation.Methods. The research methodology is based on historical analysis, which helped to identify the stages of development of international relations between the two states. The comparative analysis defines the differences in the foreign policy line of Germany towards Kazakhstan at different stages. Regular summit meetings were the objects of event analysis.Results. By examining historical context, economic partnerships, and geopolitical considerations, it is possible to investigate the dynamics shaping German engagement in Central Asia.Conclusions. The genesis of the development of interstate relations was the collapse of the USSR, which served to form sovereign states in the post-Soviet space. The development of bilateral relations is characterized by several stages: some of them were characterized by stagnation, others, by an increase in the attention of Germany to Kazakhstan. The beginning of 2022 served to intensify Germany’s foreign policy in the region. At the present stage, Germany uses a multi-pronged approach that includes diplomatic, economic, cultural and educational components. Germany’s foreign policy in the region is aimed at protecting its national interests. Secondly, the partnership with Kazakhstan is a symbol of Germany’s shared foreign policy goals, emphasizing the importance of cooperation, dialogue and joint development efforts in the heart of Eurasia.

Amerika Serikat sebagai Negara Adikuasa: Pengaruh dan Dominasi dari Akhir Abad ke-20 hingga Awal Abad ke-21

This research analyzes the role and influence of the United States as a superpower from the late 20th century to the early 21st century, focusing on military, economic, political, and cultural power. After the Soviet Union's collapse, the United States became the dominant force in international policy, with significant global power projection through a large defense budget and advanced technology. Economically, its influence is seen in the dollar's dominance and leading technology companies. Politically, the U.S. plays a central role in international organizations like the UN and NATO. Culturally, American media and technology have led to widespread "Americanization." Despite its influence, the U.S. faces criticism for unilateral policies and military interventions, along with domestic challenges such as economic inequality and racial tensions, and the rise of powers like China and Russia. This research provides insights into how the U.S. maintains its superpower status and addresses global challenges.

People's Multi-party Democracy: A Success Story of the Communist Movement of Nepal

The 1990s was a crucial time in the global communist movement that faced a serious setback after the collapse of the USSR and other East European communist and socialist governments. In Nepal, communist parties allied with the Nepali Congress, a democratic party to stage the people’s movement to end active monarchy and restore democracy. The call for the people’s movement by the parties appealed the people and they took part in the movement in a historic way. That movement succeeded to restore democracy and end the active monarchy. Madan Bhandari, the secretary-general of the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist and Leninist) witnessed this unprecedented participation of the people in a peaceful democratic movement and realized the need to democratize the communist movement, so that, they could build people’s trust towards communist parties. In the general election held in 1991, communist parties won forty percent of the seats in the parliament and popular votes as well. In this context, Bhandari presented the document of people’s multi-party democracy in the fifth national congress of the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist and Leninist) held in 1993, and it was passed overwhelmingly in the congress. This article attempts to make a textual analysis of the document of People’s multi-party democracy to examine the major aspects of the document and to see how successful it has become in democratizing the communist movement in Nepal.

History of studying essential oil crops

The article provides a historical overview of the formation and development of the essential oil industry. The main attention is paid to the history of scientific research of essential oil and medicinal plants. Our ancestors may have instinctively selected certain herbs for healing, just as sick animals today seek out plants they wouldn't normally eat. Based on an analysis of the current state, the need has been determined and the priority tasks have been formed for a full-scale revival of essential oil production in the Russian Federation.The problem tatement: in the republics of the former USSR, a number of essential oil plants were cultivated: coriander, lavender, essential oil rose, sage and others. In the 1970-80s the area of cultivation of essential oil plants exceeded 200 thousand hectares. At the same time, the demand for essential oils and other essential oil products was not fully satisfied. With the collapse of the USSR, the essential oil industry declined. The growing areas for most of the essential oil crops ended up on the territory of the newly formed independent states. The cultivation and processing of essential oils in Russia decreased significantly.The goal of the research is substantiation and acquisition of knowledge about the history of emergence and development of essential oil plants, herbal medicine, active substances as a tool for developing a common problem and combining the scientific, industrial and innovative potential of all interested parties.The research methods used are source study, historical-typological and biographical methods. The research results: the opportunity to gain new knowledge about the history of the origin and distribution of essential oil plants, and the creation of a huge food base for animals and people.

The Dynamics between the Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Polity in Modern Ethiopia and Its Role in Establishing Peace in the Country

The interaction between the Orthodox Church and the state in Ethiopia has undergone various phases throughout the country's history. Emperor Haile Selassie, who came to power in 1930, sought to modernise Ethiopia by adopting Western educational and administrative systems. This included restructuring the Church administration to establish a centralised hierarchy for easier control. The military regime that seized power in 1974, inspired by Marxist and Leninist ideologies, showed strong hostility towards religion. When this regime took over the Patriarchate in Addis Ababa, Church administration shifted back to influential monasteries in rural Ethiopia, leading to a period of reduced activity, often termed hibernation. Communist propaganda which aimed at secularising the urban youth population gained some traction until the regime's overthrow in 1991 following the collapse of the USSR. The quasi-democratic regime of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, which took power in 1991–92, liberated all religious communities from political suppression. They introduced an ethnic federalism system, dividing the country into states based on ethnicity. However, this regime later faced accusations of favouring a single ethnic group, leading to the rise of the current oligarchical government in 2017. Consequently, the Orthodox Church saw a decline in its political influence. This paper examines these historical and political developments in relation to Church history to understand the Ethiopian Orthodox Church's role in past, present and future peace restoration efforts, particularly following recent conflicts in northern Ethiopia.

“V.M. Bekhterev Review of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology” — History of the First Psychiatric Journal in Russia

The article presents the historical facts oт the creation of the first psychiatric journal in Russia (1896). The organizer of the journal and its first editor-in-chief was V.M. Bekhterev. After his death in 1927, the journal was named after him. It had been published until its closure in 1930. For various reasons, some of which are discussed in the article, the journal has not been published for six decades. The organizational difficulties of registering printed materials that existed at that time are also described. Nevertheless, they were overcome, and in 1990 the USSR State Press Committee issued the Order «On the resumption of publication of the journal...». The journal received a Registration Certificate and was assigned to almost the highest group of central journals. All financing was assigned to the Leningrad branch of the publishing house «Medicine», and the journal was printed in the fabulous in modern reality figure of 20,000 copies per month.After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, this Order ceased to be valid, and the whole thing had to be started all over again. Nevertheless, the first issue of the journal was published in 1991. Its release has been expected not only in Russia, but also abroad. The first issue included a welcoming speech by the President of the World Psychiatric Association, Jorge Alberto Costa e Silva, which attracted even more attention towards the journal. In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association published an English-language digest of the journal in the United States. For some time the journal was also published in Paris (1998-2000) and in Moscow (2004-2011). Currently, the journal is published by its founder, the V.M. Bekhterev National Medical Research Center for Psychiatry and Neurology in St. Petersburg and is one of the most renowned journals in the field of psychiatry and medical psychology in Russia.

ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF TÜRKIYE WITH THE TURKIC STATES OF SOUTH CAUCASUS AND CENTRAL ASIA

In the present era, the Turkic states are experiencing an upward trajectory in the expansion of their relationships, particularly in the economic sphere. After the collapse of the USSR, the Turkic states that regained their independence – Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan – followed different dynamics of economic development. These Turkic states are located in regions of significant geopolitical and geostrategic importance, spanning a wide area from the Adriatic to the Great Wall of China. The purpose of the study is to examine the dynamics of the development of economic relations between Türkiye and the Turkic states of South Caucasus and Central Asia in the modern era. The main objectives are to examine the economic potential of the Turkic states and Türkiye’s economic policy towards the Turkic states of the South Caucasus and Central Asia, to analyze the development dynamics and characteristics of the economic relations between Türkiye and the Turkic states of these two regions.

Developing the Institution of the Assembly of the People of Kazakhstan in the Context of Forming a Fair Kazakhstan

This paper examines the evolutionary development of the Assembly of the People of Kazakhstan (APK), an important structural component of the country's political system and an institution that promotes inter-ethnic harmony. The analysis is based on program documents that reveal the different stages of development and provide insights into its transformation. The article is based on institutional design and theoretical develop-ments by B. Jessop and E. Yesengarayev. It provides an understanding of the role of the APK in harmonising inter-ethnic relations. The paper emphasises the social and legal interdependence required to adapt to dynam-ic socio-demographic conditions. The article considers the development of the APK in the context of the formation and assembly of the nation of Kazakhstan following the collapse of the USSR. It offers a new per-spective on the evolutionary path of the APK and its implications for strengthening social cohesion in Ka-zakhstan. The authors emphasise the institution's ability to navigate complex inter-ethnic dynamics. This study contributes to the existing literature by offering novel insights into the evolutionary journey of the APK and its implications for fostering social cohesion in Kazakhstan.

La Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte y la expansión del capitalismo occidental

The outbreak of war in Ukraine and Western support for the Ukrainian state have brought up the role of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in international politics, a subject debated in the press and media, in universities, in states, and in international organizations. In hasty assessments, the argument that emerges is that the war, particularly the Russian administration of Vladimir Putin, has given NATO a new reason of life, since it no longer had any reason to exist in the face of the defeat and dissolution of the USSR. Our aim in this article is therefore to demonstrate that NATO has always had a reason to exist in order to fulfill the function assigned to it by the Western powers: to eliminate politically and militarily obstacles to the expansion of Western capitalism. Because it is an international political and military organization linked to the capitalist powers led by the United States, with its smaller European partners, it is an organization whose dynamic is expansionist. So, our object is NATO in its founding treaty, institutional organization, strategic concepts, summit meetings, geopolitical expansion, partnerships, and military operations.

Review of the Book by V.M.Zubok “Collapse. The Fall of the Soviet Union”.

The article considers the monograph by professor of the London School of Economics and Political Sciences V.M. Zubok “Collapse. The Fall of the Soviet Union” published in Russia in 2023. Considering that in recent years the number of works devoted to this issue has noticeably decreased, the appearance of such a thorough study is an important scientific event. The purpose of this article is to determine the author’s contribution to uncovering the problem of the USSR collapse. This monograph is considered in the general context of modern scientific issues devoted to the collapse of the USSR. The expert assessment is based on the following criteria: scientific objectivity, the nature of the sources and literature used, the structure of presentation and the general intent of the work. Based on the analysis of the V.M. Zubok’s monograph, it can be concluded that this work represents a fundamental historical and political science study. The author uses a huge number of diverse (and in many ways unique) sources, while focusing on personal materials (memoirs, interviews). This approach helps to understand the subjective (hidden) mechanisms of making certain fateful decisions. The undoubted advantages of the study include a comprehensive consideration of the economic, political, and national processes that took place in the late USSR, considering the foreign policy factor that influenced the fate of the Soviet Union. The main reason for the fall of the Soviet Union according to V.M. Zubok are reforms that were extremely unsuccessful and not suitable for the Soviet state, given the uniqueness and specificity of the country. In addition to the mistakes of the top leadership, the author places great responsibility for the fall of the USSR on the “Western partners” of Gorbachev (primarily the USA). The George W. Bush administration could, if it wanted, save the USSR by providing large-scale financial and economic assistance. However, as the author proves, the United States did not intend to do this, patiently watching the collapse of its strategic enemy. Therefore, Zubok’s study helps to better understand the meaning of modern Russian policy aimed at not repeating the mistakes of perestroika.

THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN IN THE CONTEXT OF CONSTITUTIONAL AND DEMOCRATIC REFORMS

The work is devoted to the study of the forms of government established in Kazakhstan since the day it gained state independence and to this day. The topic is given relevance by the political process of democratic transition of power successfully implemented in 2019, as well as the current transition to a new “human-centric” model of public administration. The facts from the history that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the emergence of new republics are given. The destruction of interethnic and interethnic harmony, the aggravation of relations between the union republics and the central government are designated as negative aspects. At the same time, the right of the peoples to self-determination and the right of the union republics to freely secede from the Soviet Union are positive. The features of the super-presidential model of government, to which Kazakhstan moved in a difficult period of time, are characterized. The positive aspects of the super-presidential form of government are noted, the uniqueness and originality of which, in the opinion of the authors, should not be in doubt. The history of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which begins in the 90s, clearly shows that the chosen model of government has exceeded all expectations. The factors influencing the formation of forms of government, the subtle flexibility of the Kazakh model of government, prone to transformations, are identified. Attention is paid to the latest changes made to the Constitution of the Russian Federation in 2020, which in general terms are similar to the constitutional reforms in the Republic of Kazakhstan from 2017. Attention is paid to the latest changes made to the Constitution of the Russian Federation in 2020, which in general terms are similar to the constitutional reforms in the Republic of Kazakhstan from 2017. In conclusion, the prospects for a change in the form of government in Kazakhstan are outlined, which are inevitable in the context of constitutional reforms carried out in all spheres of life.

Трансисторические структуры российского аграрного общества

Within the framework of historical sociology, the author develops the concept of transistorical structures of Russian society caused by a number of internal and external factors, primarily the dangerous geopolitical environment and the limited resources of the extensive agrarian economy. The analysis shows that transhistorical structures, as an integral authoritarian complex, were formed during a long-term historical process, complicated by a difficult geopolitical environment, the extensive economy of the agrarian society, and abnormal natural and geographical conditions. The thesis is clarified and analyzed that for a long historical period the transhistorical structures, primarily autocracy, militarism, empire, large-scale economy, served as the basis and mechanism for the formation and maintenance of social order and stability in Russian agrarian society. It is shown that due to various social fluctuations, these structures sooner or later led the Russian state to stagnation, and then to catastrophic restructuring (the Troubles, the Revolution of 1917, the collapse of the USSR).

Policy of Western States in Central Asia: The Role of Rare-Earth Metals

After the collapse of the USSR, the policy of the Western states towards Central Asia was focused on the issues linked to the expansion of trade and economic relations, gaining access to hydrocarbon resources of the regional countries and organizing their reliable export to foreign markets. In recent years, due to changes in technological development, the Western countries have increased their interest in rare-earth metals. Competition aimed at getting control over explored and prospective deposits is unfolding in different regions of the world. One of the promising areas with significant reserves of rare-earth metals is Central Asia. For this reason, in the last few years the USA, the EU, Great Britain and other countries have become increasingly interested in the region. The West is pursuing an active policy course towards Central Asian states. Such an approach is aimed not so much at developing the countries of the area as at expanding the presence of the West and reorienting the foreign policy course of the regional states towards the interests of non-regional actors. The ultimate goal of the Western states is to gain control over the deposits of rare-earth metals, which are located in Central Asia. The article covers the main directions of the policy the Western states apply in the region and underscores the mechanisms they use to promote their interests in gaining access to promising deposits of rare-earth metals. At the same time, the countries of the region generally welcome the Western policy, believing that it will attract additional investments into their economies. In turn, some influential and rich Western states along with companies they support exert pressure on Central Asian countries, seeking the most favorable conditions for themselves in the development of deposits and control over the resulting resources. The article concludes that Russia and China are competing with the Western states in Central Asia for getting access and gaining control over the deposits of rare-earth metals.

Revival of Islam Post-Soviet Period in Kyrgyzstan

The relationship between national and religious in state building, the concept of secularism and democracy in the conditions of the Muslim majority are analyzed. The growing influence of Islam on many areas of social and political relations was a completely natural consequence of the collapse of the USSR and the ideology of atheism. The democratic path of development of Kyrgyzstan, relative freedom of religion, and the opening of borders create conditions where Islam not only returns the role it lost in society over 70 years, but also embraces new spheres of influence in which its impact cannot be ignored. -

IRAN’S POSITION ON THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE CASPIAN SEA

For some time after the collapse of the USSR, the Caspian Sea continued to belong to two states, namely Russia, as the successor to the USSR, and Iran. However, this caused serious contradictions between the coastal newly formed post-Soviet countries overthe use of the Caspian Sea water area, seabed and subsoil. To solve such problems, it was necessary to establis h a new legal status of the Caspian Sea, taking into account the interests of all Caspian littoral states.At the initiative of the Russian Federation, work began in 1996 on a draft convention on the lega l status of the Caspian Sea, which was to be oriented towards the interests of all littoral states. Including more than 50 meetings and 5 summits, the draft Convention reached its culmination in 2018 in Aktau. The purpose of this research paper is to examine Iran's perspective on the legal status of the Caspian Sea and assess the impact of the Aktau summit on Iran. The paper analyzes Iran's role in the negotiations and its position on various issues related to the legal status of the Caspian Sea. Through this analysis, the paper aims to provide insight into the complexities of the Caspian Sea legal framework and its implications for Iran's interests and its relations with other littoral states.

Антропологические исследования в советских лагерях для военнопленных в 1940-е гг.

The article fills an important gap in the history of Russian (Soviet) physical anthropology. Based on previously secret archival papers discovered by the author, the history of anthropological research in prisoner-of-war camps on the territory of the USSR in the 1940s is revealed. Following the example of anthropologists during World War I, Soviet anthropologists, led by Viktor Bunak, initiated and carried out an extensive research program under the auspices of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences in close cooperation with the NKVD authorities. The published archival materials strictly document the work of the scientists, who in 1943 proposed the idea of this large-scale study, and presented the project to the Deputy Chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars, Andrey Vyshinsky. The immediate permission to conduct the expedition was personally given by Lavrentiy Beria. The project was carried out in 1944–1946 under strict secrecy, which also was extended to the publication of its results. Specific information is provided on the conduct of anthropological research in a number of prisoner-of-war camps, the composition of the expedition, instructions, and methodologies. The article analyzes the reasons why the entire history and results of this project remained classified as secret until the collapse of the USSR. The article is preceded by a review of anthropological research by Russian (Soviet) scientists involving special contingents as informants, explaining why special contingents (army conscripts, military personnel, mentally ill individuals, prisoners in prisons and camps) were actively used in anthropological research.

Historical Past and Historical-Cultural Heritage of Buryats as Reflected in Journal ‘Sibirskie Ogni’ (1920s-1980s): Memory Politics Aspect

The aim of the article is to characterize representations of the history and historicalcultural heritage of the Buryats in the pages of the Sibirskie Ogni journal from the early 1920s to the late 1980s in the context of state memory politics. The methodological framework of the study was the field of “Memory Studies.” Conclusions were drawn about the intense ideologization of the historical past of the Buryats on the pages of the Sibirskie Ogni journal at all stages of the Soviet period, as well as the journal's disregard for Buryat heritage associated with the traditions of Buddhist East. Six stages of representation were identified. In the first stage (1920s), Buryat authors freely wrote in the journal about Buryat history, expressed historical grievances against Russia, and sought recognition of the value of Buryat historical-cultural heritage. In the second stage (1930s), only articles by Russian authors about Buryat history in a critical tone were published in the journal. In the third stage (1940s-1950s), Sibirskie Ogni journal printed articles with crushing criticism of inconvenient versions of Buryat history presented in national literature. In the fourth stage (1960s-1970s), Buryat history was not discussed at all in the journal. In the fifth stage (1980s), a flourishing of Buryat culture was proclaimed under the influence of Soviet leadership. After the collapse of the USSR, much was rethought and perceived as a historical mistake. The Sibirskie Ogni journal began publishing articles again on Buryat literary traditions, epic poetry, etc.

The banking system of Ukraine as a factor of social stability in the war

Before the collapse of the USSR, Ukraine was one of the 15 socialist republics. Along with Belarus, the Russian Federation, and the USSR, Ukraine is one of the founders of the United Nations. Ukraine has gone through transformations from a command-administrative to a market system in 30 years. The driving force behind this development was the national democratic forces, the leaders of which were former dissidents of the USSR. One of the main factors of market transformations in Ukraine is the national private banking business. In the conditions of Russia’s direct military aggression against Ukraine in 2022, the banking business of Ukraine has shown its institutional capacity and is one of the stabilizing factors of society. Thanks to the integration of Ukraine’s banking business into the global financial system, millions of Ukrainian refugees have the opportunity to use their accumulated funds in the national currency abroad. The purpose of this article is to analyze the impact of the banking sector of Ukraine on the country’s democratic development, and the contribution of the banking system to countering Russian aggression. The article considers further ways of development of the banking system of Ukraine in the post-war period.

THE REVERSE IMPACT OF THE «SOCIALIST REALISM» METHOD IN CREATING A HERO'S PERSONALITY AND MODERN KAZAKH NOVEL

The era of the Soviet Union proved that real national literature cannot be created under colonialism. The "Socialist realism" method created by the authorities had a reverse impact on the nature of the artistic image. The characters in the work are politicized. Special attention was paid to the class division (rich and poor), and the images were depicted one-sidedly. The collapse of the USSR allowed the development of a new type of literature in the post-Soviet countries. In the research paper, we made comparisons, and the damage caused by the method of "socialist realism" to fiction is mentioned. However, these years were also successful. Kazakh literature has developed in terms of genres. The genre of the novel has been mastered. Talented writers have mastered describing the reality of life with clues. Literary tradition and skill practices were used in the literature of the period of Independence. The fate and history of the nation were shown in innovative novels. Modern realities and changed human psychology were depicted together with the world space. A stream of postmodern, realistic novels came to literature. The release of the novel from political restrictions allowed genre change (historical, biographical, satirical, fantasy, etc.). The storytelling style has been renewed. There was new artistic and stylistic research in creating a hero’s personality.