Soviet Research Research Articles

CREATIVE WORKS OF JOHN WILLIAM CHEEVER IN THE LITERARY-CRITICAL INTERPRETATION OF KORNEY CHUKOVSKY

The article deals with the comprehension of the features of perception of works of American prose writer John William Cheever (1912-1982) by Korney Chukovsky. The appearance of the works of J. Cheever in Russian language was accompanied by the comments of Soviet researchers who considered him to be an active propagandist of socialist ideas. Literary critical works written by Korney Chukovsky provoked a more thoughtful reading of the works of the American writer by Russian readers. Korney Chukovsky is the author of the preface to the collection of short stories written by J. Cheever in translations of Tat’yana Litvinova entitled «Giant Radio» published in 1962. In the future, this introduction, with amendments and additions, was published as an article of «John Cheever». The American writer’s work perception by Korney Chukovsky of was not unique. He criticised the fi rst collection of short stories by J. Cheever «The Way Some People Live» (1943), for his student imitation of the recognisable style of predecessor writers. Korney Chukovsky believed that the best stories of J. Cheever were collected in the book «The Enormous Radio and other stories» (1953), the central themes of which were the imperfection of the social structure and the causes that caused it social inequality of people, their spiritual devastation. Analysing the stories of J. Cheever, Korney Chukovsky noted a signifi cant detail – despite the seeming impartial attitude towards his heroes in trouble, J. Cheever empathises them, wants to draw public attention to important problems of our time.

Становящееся научное сообщество. Сводный портрет исследователей российского ислама

Проведенное авторами статьи пилотное исследование (анкетирование) круга отечественных ученых, специализирующихся на изучении современного российского ислама и российских мусульман, позволило осуществить первый опыт характеристики этого формирующегося научного сообщества. В постсоветской России такое исламоведческое сообщество складывается прежде всего на основе “советских” востоковедческих кадров и соответствующих центров. Существенную роль в его формировании играют и исламские учебные заведения, возникшие в последние десятилетия, – многие служители культа имеют светские ученые степени. В свою очередь, светские учебные и научные учреждения способствуют становлению исламских высших учебных заведений, так как исламское образование в России идет по пути синтеза религиозных и светских знаний. Значимый рост академической активности по исламской тематике произошел с 2008 г. в результате решения правительства подготовить специалистов с глубокими знаниями истории и культуры ислама, которые будут работать в исламских религиозных организациях. Большинство опрошенных ученых изучают местные мусульманские общины и ислам на региональном уровне из-за разнообразия мусульманских общин в стране. На повестку дня выходят задачи концептуализации знаний о российском исламе, выработки методов его изучения, а также выяснения места, роли и функций ислама в современном российском обществе. Оставаясь весьма мозаичным, российский ислам динамично меняется. Авторы полагают, что господствующая в настоящее время региональная исследовательская парадигма тормозит понимание процессов, происходящих в российском исламском сообществе. Необходимо составить картину развития ислама в России в целом. Полевые исследования должны вестись в разных регионах страны, чтобы создать целостную картину. Делать это следует в контексте мировой ситуации, в первую очередь – ситуации на Ближнем Востоке, а также с учетом функционирования неформальных исламских сетей. Необходима глубокая кооперация с востоковедами-арабистами.

В начале пути: письмо В. В. Струве М. И. Ростовцеву от 25 мая 1914 г.

The article presents a publication of the letter from Vasily Vasilievich Struve (1889–1965), pioneer in the research of the Ancient Near East societies in the Soviet Union, to Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtzev (1870–1952), the prominent Classicist, one of the first scholars in socio-economic history of the Antiquity in pre-revolutionary Russia. The letter was written during Struve’s post-graduate sabbatical in Berlin in 1914; it is stored in the Russian State Historical Archives in St. Petersburg. The document is significant due to its information on Struve’s stay in Berlin and on his contacts with leading German scholars (including Eduard Meyer and Adolf Erman), but it also touches upon a bigger issue. In the early 1930s Struve forwarded his concept of slave-owning mode of production in the Ancient Near East, which was immediately accepted into official historiography, making him a leading theoretician in the Soviet research of ancient history. It has been repeatedly stated in memoirs and in post-Soviet historiography that this concept and, generally speaking, Struve’s interest in socio-economic issues was opportunistic. His 1910s articles on the Ptolemaic society and state published prior to the Russian revolution weigh heavily against this point of view. The published letter contains Struve’s assessment of his future thesis (state institutions of the New Kingdom of Egypt) and puts its topic in the context of current discussions on the Ptolemaic state and society and of his studies in the Rostovtzev’s seminar at the St. Petersburg University. Struve declares the study of Egyptian social structure and connections between its pre-Hellenistic and Hellenistic phases his life-task, introduced to him by Rostovtzev. Thus, Struve’s early interest in these issues appears to be sincere; it stems from pre-revolutionary trends in the Russian scholarship.

Скарб московських та шведських монет середини ХVІІ ст. із с. Войнашівка Барського району Вінницької області

Abstract. Introduction. The authors of the article attempt to analyze the quantitative and qualitative composition of wallet with copper coins of the Moscow Kingdom and the Baltic possessions of Sweden found on the territory of Vinnytsia oblast in 2018, to describe negative effects of monetary reform of 1655–1663 of the Tsar Oleksiy Mykhailovych (1645-1676) for the Moscow Kingdom and Hetmanshchyna, suggest their own versions of appearance of the wallet on the territory of Podillia. The issue : The relevance of the research is due to the necessity to determine the role of the currency circulation in Ukrain, especially on the territory of Podillia in the middle of ХVІІ, of copper coin and denha of the Moscow Kingdom which was minted during the monetary reform of 1655–1663 of Tsar Oleksiy Mykhailovych (1645-1676). Review of the last researches and sources: The issue of the role of Western European and Moscow silver and copper coins on the territory of Ukraine of the Hetmanate period (1648–1782) was highlighted in the works of the well-known numismatists of Ukraine: I. Spaskyi, M. Kotliar, R. Shust, H. Holysh, O. Kurok, O. Bakalets, V. Nechytailo, V. Sherstiuk, M. Kovalenko, A. Kliuiev, V. Bielashov and others. Important information on the researched problem is contained in the works of the Soviet researcher V. Melnikova. There is a lot of gaps in the issue wich we need to fill. The aim of the investigation is to analyze in detail and to introduce into the circulation the new numismatic material found on the territory of Podillia in the recent years. Represent the basic material: Villager of the Voinashivka Bar Region Vinnytsia Oblast found the treasure (lost wallet) with 89 copper coins of the middle of ХVІІ in the forest. In our opinion the find has unique unconventional composition of the Podillia of the period under study. The condition of the treasure is satisfactory. The most of coins are oxidized, covered with green patina, some of them are chipped, some of depictions and inscriptions are illegible because coins were under the ground for a long time. Some of coins stuck together. The Governments which minted the coin were the Moscow Kingdom during the reign of the Tsar Oleksiy Mykhailovych (1645-1676) and the Baltic possessions of Sweden during the reign of the queen Khrystyna Avhusta (1632 – 1654). There are 16 billon solid coins of the Baltic possessions of Sweden and 53 copper coins and copper denhas of the the Moscow Kingdom of 50’s years of ХVІІ century in the treasure (wallet). The weight of the coins is 34, 37 g. The oldest coins are of Voinashivka’s treasure are solid coins of Khrystyna Avhusta of the beginning of the 40’s years of ХVІІ century, the youngest are copper coins of 1655–1656 years of the Tsar Oleksiy Mykhailovych. In our opinion the owner of the wallet cold be the Moscow rifleman who accompanied the royal delegation to the residence of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the Bar. The other version says that riflemans who received the copper coins as a salary accompanied the royal salary and other goods to the Cossacks according to the conditions of the March articles in the 1654. They stoped at the forest of Voinashivka and one of them lost the wallet. Conclusion. We can make the conclusion based on the historiography of the issue and the treasure of copper coins of the middle of ХVІІ found on the territory of Podillia. First of all, after the monetary reform 25 of July 1662 the Moscow Kingdom returned to the old coined system, the copper coin was lead out from the currency circulation. Secondly the coins aren’t saved in the treasures of Russia and Ukraine. Thirdly in the Moscow Kingdom and Kyiv on the territory of the Moscow garrison was found fake silvered tined coins covered with mercury. Fourthly the only positive result, in our opinion, was the admission of the thaler into circulation of the Moscow Kingdom, but not in the form of a roubl, but in the form of the yefymka with the “sign” that brought the new monetary system closer to the European one. The monetary reform failed to resolve the issue of changing the Hetmanate monetary economy in favor of the Moscow Kingdom because of using Polish and western European coins. Sixthly the find of wallet with Moscow copper coins and denhas of the Voinashivka’s treasure is very rare fot the territory of Podillia, but on the other hand it shows us a wide range of monetary economy of the Moscow Kingdom during the failed monetary reform of Oleksiy Mykhailovych.

The Russian School of Foraminiferology

Abstract Russian foraminiferal research began in the late 19th century and has continued to the present. Micropaleontology was prominent at two main branches of Soviet research institutions, that in St. Petersburg, known as the Petersburgian (Leningrad) and in Moscow as the Russian foraminiferal school. These two collaborated in well-coordinated cooperative work all around the country. This combined school of foraminiferology included many accomplished scientists whose main achievements are summarized, including highlights of the leadership and the contributions of A. V. Fursenko, G. A. Dutkevich, D. M. Rauser-Chernousova, N. N. Subbotina, and A. Gerke. The sustained focus on evolutionary history and its significance for taxonomy resulted in the revision of higher-level taxonomy and new understanding of the phylogeny of the Foraminifera, as well as positive elaborations of the systematics, biostratigraphy and ecology of the Foraminifera.

Disputes about Imposed and Made-up Versions

The article is dedicated to the analysis of the work by Natalia Potapova “Speaking from their cells: discourse and political strategies of the Decembrists” published in 2017. The main argument of the author is that the investigation falsified the existence of the secret society, and the accused agreed with it as they believed they could express their political views in that way. Both sides of the process, as well as Emperor Nicolas I, at the same time were mostly concerned with the European press. The choice of sources in the book is quite peculiar. Natalia Potapova, criticizing Soviet researchers who focused only on the cases with most radical confessions, is very selective herself. She analyses only the primary interrogation centered around secret society membership. Аll the Decembrists’ memoirs telling about the secret societies are deemed unreliable, and all the historical documents on the topic written before 1825 are treated as non-existing. The materials of the European press, predominantly the British, are widely used in order to model the Russian public opinion as the author believes we lack other information about it. Examining the methods, arguments and conclusions of the author, this article demonstrates that the author’s conception is not convincing, not provedб and contradicts the sources. The author’s interpretation of the last is often arbitrary and not based upon the source study, and it uncritically projects the modern situations and beliefs to the beginning of the 19th century. Thus, the work by Natalia Potapova is not, in the strictest sense, a historical research.

Towards the Concept of the Slave-Owning Society at the Ancient Orient: the Manuscript Elements of the Ancient Oriental Society by Vsevolod Avdiev (1933)

The article presents an analysis of unpublished manuscripts written in the early 1930s by Vsevolod Avdiev (1898—1978), a prominent personality in the Soviet research of the Ancient Near East, which are preserved now in his fond at the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences (no. 1782); one of these papers entitled Elements of the Ancient Oriental Society (1933) is fully published. These manuscripts allow concluding that their author was shuttling from one option to another in defining the nature of the Ancient Near Eastern society; and this shuttling largely depended on the trends in ideology and partly on fashions in academic approaches. Starting with a semi-biological interpretation of some objects of the Ancient Egyptian pre-dynastic art and with defining the Egyptian state as “the organizer of production” (1930) Avdiev gradually joined the concept of feudalism at the Ancient Orient and stressed the importance of the class struggle in it (1931, early 1933). In May 1933 he wrote the paper that is being published now: there he defined the Ancient Oriental societies as slave-owning, though with some reservations about their specifics. One should pay attention to the instantaneousness in the change of his position, which was probably backed by Stalin’s speech of 19 February 1933 claiming the struggle between slaves and slave-owners to have been the major factor of ancient history. Avdiev’s schemes were not only ideologically biased but also rather meagerly argued: they demonstrate a number of errors and correspond to the level of popularization rather than of real research.

Ethnography vs Philology: “Rod” in Turkic and Mongolian Nomadic Societies in the Studies of N. N. Kozmin and His Contemporaries

The article is devoted to the views of soviet researchers of the 1920s — 1930s. on the social organization of the nomads of the Eurasian steppes, with a focus on the interpretation of the concept of “rod” (clan). The main attention is drawn to the thoughts of the Irkutsk researcher N. N. Koz’min, viewed through the prism of polemics with opponents, the main of which he himself saw other representatives of the pre-revolutionary school were W. Barthold and B. Ya. Vladimirtsov. The article attempts to show that initially the views of N. N. Koz’min were quite close to the views on social processes among nomads by such researchers as W. Radloff and H. Vámbéry, based of ethnographical material and finally became the basis for studying the social history of nomadism. Most important in the position of N. N. Koz’min was the perception of nomadic unions as politically organized units. That, in turn, intends to consider ethnic and social processes in nomadic societies as closely related and inextricable.

Approaches to the review of the Khotyn Uprising in 1919 in soviet and contemporary Ukrainian historiography

The Khotyn Uprising was an event that became one of the most striking pages in the history of the region in the XX century. Considerable attention was paid to the study of the history of this issue during the Soviet period, but interpretation of the rebellion has changed several times because of the increasing influence of ideology on the research of Soviet scientists. With the proclamation of Ukraine's Independence, it became possible to objectively cover these events, which led to a process of rethinking the scientific works of Soviet researchers. The presence of different approaches in covering this issue necessitates a detailed analysis of the transformations that took place in the interpretation of the Khotyn uprising.
 The article explores the specific features of the main approaches to the coverage of the Khotyn uprising in Soviet and contemporary Ukrainian scientific historical literature.
 It is established that in the 20th – 40th of the XX century the Khotyn uprising was reported as a spontaneous peasant rebellion against the Romanian invaders. According to the Representatives of this approach, one of the main causes of the defeat of uprising was the absence of a Bolshevik insurgency organisation.
 It is revealed that 50th of the XX century became a transitional period between the previous interpretation of the Khotyn uprising and the new coverage of events, as scientists still emphasized that the uprising was peasantry, but began to provide a significance to revolutionary elements among them.
 Since the 60th of the XX century the situation is changed: ideology has become a decisive element in research of the uprising and, therefore, all events related to the uprising have been covered in according to the ideology. Thus, the Khotyn uprising is reported as prepared by the communist-led committee, had a well-planned commencement and aimed at restoring Soviet power in the Khotyn region.
 It is established that with the proclamation of Ukraine's Independence in the coverage of the uprising, there are dramatic changes related to the nature and purpose of the uprising, the political orientations of its leaders, etc. In contemporary Ukrainian science, for example, the Bolshevik character of the uprising and the struggle for power of the Soviets is refuted; instead, the emphasis was made on national liberation; it was confirmed the thesis about the orientation of some of the organizers of the uprising to the Ukrainian People's Republic in Kiev. The neutrality of the UPR’s Directory is explained because of the threat of war with Romania.
 Keywords: Khotyn uprising, Soviet historiography, contemporary Ukrainian historiography.

Штрихи до портрета дніпропетровських «всесвітників»: медієвіст В. Т. Сиротенко у спогадах професора Ю. Є. Івоніна

The notes by Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of Samara State University Yuriy Yevheniyovytch Yvonin about the historian-medievalist Vasyl Trokhymovytch Syrotenko are published. V. T. Syrotenko is a prominent researcher of late Antiquity and early Medieval times. In his numerous publications, he argued against the scholars interpretation of early medieval history, the essence of which was that the Roman Empire was ruined both barbarians and slaves. Syrotenko proved that the slaves fought with their owners against the barbarians. The result of the scholar’s scientific work was the publication of a number of scientific articles, textbooks and monographs. Vasil’ Syrotenko is known not only as a historian of the early Middle Ages. A popular rumor has it that in the years of Kracow's liberation from the Nazi occupation, Syrotenko, together with a Soviet soldier, saved Karol Wojtyla, a seminary student, who went on to become Pope John Paul II. In his researches and public speeches, the historian criticized Soviet researchers of the transition period from antiquity to the Middle Ages. He accused them of plagiarizing the ideas and texts of Western historians. Such arrogance of a provincial scientist caused indignation of metropolitan scientists. The result was a four -year delay of his doctorate from the Higher Attestation Commission.
 In his memoirs Yu. Ye. Yvonin pays attention to the Perm and Dnipropetrovsk periods of Vasyl Trokhymovych's life. The author tells about his personal relationship with Syrotenko, about the advice he gave him when he was just starting out his research activity. The historian’s relations with the Leningrad mediaevalists are noted. The causes of the "conflict" that flared up between the capital mediaevalists and antiquity from the capital city universities researchers and Syrotenko are outlined. Vasyl Trokhymovych's place in the Permian historical environment, his manner of delivering lectures and conducting scientific discussions are outlined. It is noted that the Dnipropetrovsk period of his life became the time of low scientific activity.

ДЖАФАР ХАНДАН О ТВОРЧЕСТВЕ НИЗАМИ ГЯНДЖЕВИ

The article discusses Jafar Khandan’s criticism of the creative work of the great poet-philosopher Nizami Ganjavi. The paper provides a survey of J. Khandan’s scientific works devoted to analysing the socio-political and philosophical problems raised in Nizami’s poetry; it is shown that assessing the poet’s creative heritage, J. Khandan took into account the specificity of a particular historical period. Being a Soviet researcher, J. Khandan did not openly express his attitude to Nizami’s religious and spiritual world. He is extremely cautious in this matter. The paper emphasizes J. Khandan’s contribution to the study of Nizami’s epoch, to the systematization of his heritage.

Provincialjnoe chinovnichestvo Rossii pervoy poloviny XIX v. v trudakh dorevolucionnykh i sovetskikh issledovateley

Provincialjnoe chinovnichestvo Rossii pervoy poloviny XIX v. v trudakh dorevolucionnykh i sovetskikh issledovateley

Soviet Researchers on the Middle East: Ahead of Their Time

In the mid-1950s-1960s the Soviet Orientalists were facing serious challenges. The collapse of the colonial system, the growth of national liberation movements, the entry of new forces that did not fit into the rigid framework of the Communist ideas about the revolutionary process, demanded realistic explanations of what was happening. The article attempts to consider some breakthrough ideas and assessments of historical events in the Middle East put forward by the Soviet experts. The review is primarily based on the publications of Soviet specialists published in the 1970’s. Among those who studied the new trends and tried to explain their further development were Soviet Arabists. At that time their circle was small. Among those who were engaged in political problems of the Arab world, one can name I.P. Belyaev, E.M. Primakov, G.I. Mirsky, A.M. Vasilyev. They had different backgrounds, but all had managed to form in their studies a fairly complete picture of political trends and state-building in the Arab world. Despite the domination of the official dogmas the leading Soviet researchers were able to present a realistic picture of the region, although their «untimely meditations» were presented in a form acceptable to the Communist ideology.The primitive division of society into the bourgeoisie, the proletariat, peasantry and landlords and the hopes for eventual development of communist parties worldwide both did not reflect the realities in the Third World countries and did not leave room for the Soviet Union there. Due to ideological reasons the USSR could not support nationalist movements abroad. Nevertheless, the Soviet leadership passed the first test for the ability to reassess their ideological stereotypes in the early 1950s, when the leaders of the Egyptian revolution turned to the USSR for military assistance. In order to justify the pragmatic choice in favor of supporting the new Arab nationalist leaders, the Soviet scholars developed the concept of three consecutive and co-dependent revolutionary flows: first, the national liberation movement overthrowing the colonial system; second, the world labor movement overthrowing the capitalist system politically; and, third, the world communist movement overthrowing the capitalist system in economic terms.It was also important for the Soviet leaders to explain the orientation of the young decolonized nationalist regimes towards the USSR, without using the argument of just political expediency. Such an explanation was the theory of the non-capitalist path of development or socialist orientation. It posed that capitalism cannot solve any of the problems of developing countries. Their interest in rapid overcoming of backwardness and maintaining national sovereignty cannot be combined with the choice of a capitalist development model. The theory of socialist orientation was based on original ideas of Marxism founders and further developed by Lenin who insisted that economically underdeveloped countries can with the help of the proletariat from advanced countries go directly to socialism bypassing capitalism.The reality of revolutions without the proletariat and the desire to take advantage of the anti-colonial struggle to establish full-scale presence of the USSR in the Middle Eats made the Soviet leadership more tolerant of scientists' attempts to realistically analyze regional trends and developments.For instance, in the Soviet era, politicians were tempted to explain all conflicts in the regions of the Third world, and particularly in the Middle East exclusively by the workings of imperialism. However, Soviet scholars, E.M. Primakov among them, warned in their studies of the dangers of such simplified estimates. Still relevant today also is G. Mirsky’s explanation of the major role the army plays in the politics of the Middle East. He argued that in the traditional societies of the region the army was the only modern, nationwide institution.The works of the Soviet scholars can help better understand contemporary trends. Their studies of driving forces of the revolutions in the Arab world, of the nationalistic regimes, of regional conflicts have not lost their relevance today. They warn the modern generation of researchers against simplistic conclusions, a temptation of politicized assessments and of ignoring the complexity of regional issues.

The Russian historiography of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire (1861–1914): approaches to the study, methodology and research methodology

The article is devoted to the Russian historiography of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire of the second half of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century. Its purpose is to study the main methodological approaches to research of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century in pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern historiography by identifying the main approaches and characteristic features of research on this topic in different historiographic periods, identifying the most prominent representatives and the most popular problematic issues of Russian historiography, identifying key research methods at different stages. The relevance of the article is determined by the coverage of different points of view on the problems of the development of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire of the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, concerning the financing of large infrastructure projects, modernization, the use of new financial instruments to increase government revenues, stabilize adverse macroeconomic problems context. This information can be used to solve modern strategic tasks of the state and rational use of financial resources. The novelty of the research is determined by the fact that to study the historiography of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries was first applied to institutional evolutionary theory. The publication identifies the main features of pre-revolutionary historiography (empiricism, a reflection of the ideology of its social group, pluralism of opinions, deep erudition of the authors), Soviet (conducting research in the framework of the formation approach, officially approved methodological principles, criticism and repression of dissidents), modern (rejection of the formation approach, the use of information technologies, the use of economic research methods, the study of the object in the context of new directions). The author covers research methods (general scientific, historical, economic), characteristic for different periods of Russian historiography, the most popular problems, and areas of study of the credit and financial system (gender history, biography, everyday history, etc.). The article shows the pluralism of opinions of pre-revolutionary researchers, the results of the application of the formation approach by Soviet researchers, expressed in the harsh criticism of predecessors, one-sided coverage of events, the use of various research methods by modern researchers, and the development of new directions.

The Ukrainian (poetic) cinema of Sergiy Paradzhanov: Soviet historiography

Purpose of Article. The article covers the phenomenon of Ukrainian poetic cinema by Sergiy Paradzhanov in Soviet historiography and his contribution to the development of Ukrainian cinema. Methodology. The methods of historiographic analysis and synthesis, criticism of historiographic sources, problem-chronological, retrospective, and comparative methods were widely used. The scientific novelty consists in an attempt to systematize and generalize the approaches of Soviet researchers and art critics to the evaluation of the Ukrainian poetic cinema S. Paradzhanov as a phenomenon in Ukrainian culture. Conclusions. The historiographical assessments of Sergiy Paradzhanov's creative work in the field of poetic cinema reflect the peculiarities of the Soviet system, which subjected to criticism of any creativity that went beyond Marxist-Leninist methodology.

FORMAL SYSTEM OF ZHOLTOVSKII COUNCIL HOUSE IN MAKHACHKALA

The Council House in Makhachkala is one of the main works of academician Zholtovskii. In spite of the fact that this architectural monument generated significant interest of the Soviet researchers in the 1920s and was mentioned in a number of publications, it is still not fully studied. This study aims at generalizing the existing practices as well as expressing personal vision taking into account new archive materials and the latest on-site examinations of this architectural monument. Its particular qualities and specific structure are shown in the context of the Soviet architecture and the creative activity of Zholtovskii. The presented photographs and archival documents have not been published before.

The meaning and origin of the activity concept in Soviet psychology—with primary focus on A. N. Leontiev’s approach

The concept of activity in Soviet psychology reflects a fundamental ontological assumption about the dynamic internal relation between person and world, arising from a person’s intentional actions, which draws on historically developed traditions of action. The article gives a deeper understanding of the activity concept by examining the historical process by which the concept was formed, providing a compact conceptual overview of the concept, formulated as a series of assumptions and implications. A conceptual dialectic is offered to explain the historical development of the concept, along with a chronological overview. This analysis shows that the concept of activity emerged collectively among Soviet researchers, and cannot be located as the discovery or introduction by a single person (such as A. N. Leontiev, who is often associated with the concept). It is suggested that a practice concept should be introduced to distinguish historical traditions of action from psychological activity.

�������� �������� ����� �� ����� � �������� (1839 � 1937 ����) ����������� �����������

�������� �������� ����� �� ����� � �������� (1839 � 1937 ����) ����������� �����������

РЕПРЕСИВНА ПСИХІАТРІЯ ЯК КАРАЛЬНО-ВИПРАВНИЙ ЗАСІБ У БОРОТЬБІ З АКТИВНИМИ ЧЛЕНАМИ БРАТСТВА ЄВАНГЕЛЬСЬКИХ ХРИСТИЯН- БАПТИСТІВ (ДРУГА ПОЛОВИНА ХХ СТ.)

The purpose of the study is to unbiased analysis of sources and literature on the use of psychiatry in punitive and repressive purposes in the Ukrainian SSR. The article uses the following methods of research: comparative-historical, typologies, classifications, problem-chronological, etc. The first works in which the facts of the struggle of the totalitarian system with the active members of the brotherhood of the ECB began to be publicized by means of repressive psychiatry were the self-published bulletins that were periodical and published in the 70's and 80's. Soviet researchers did not mention in their works the facts of torture of believers by means of repressive medicine. Modern scholars, especially specialists in the field of psychiatry, partially re-thought and reinterpreted the crimes of repressive medicine over dissent and active members of the brotherhood of the ECB. At the same time, there is no comprehensive scientific-historical research about punitive psychiatry as a form of struggle against political opponents, and in particular with active members of the ECB in the second half of the twentieth century. There is no time for this, so we will try to fill this gap somewhat.The study found that the systematic use of psychiatry for the imprisonment of dissidents in a psychiatric hospital began in the late 1950's in connection with mass rehabilitation of political prisoners who, after returning from places of detention, openly opposed all kinds of abuse of power, lack of freedom of conscience and religion; it is proved that the Soviet regime under the psychiatric repressions was summed up the theoretical and legal basis, that led to the list of restrictions on so-called mentally ill: in professional capacity and in general, in capacity, in correspondence and many others, even if they were not brought to criminal responsibility; it was shown that in the 70-80s of the XX century. punitive and repressive machine of the totalitarian system, in the name of the leaders of the security forces and their analysts with maniacal zeal, developed anti-human torture for dissenters, the main role in their humiliation now relied on psychiatrists and their Jesuit methods based on the so-called «innovative» teaching of the Moscow school of psychiatrists A. Snezhevsky about «slowed down schizophrenia», this diagnosis was recognized only in the USSR and its satellites. Under the diagnosis of «delayed schizophrenia» could fall anyone who somehow expressed dissatisfaction with the actions of the ruling regime. It was found out that in the late 70's of the twentieth century threats with a psychiatric hospital to active believers have become systemic, especially the secret services have been pressured on the members of the Council of the Relatives of the ECB Prison, who were engaged in printing and publishing crimes of totalitarian power against humanity and freedom of conscience and religion; it is proved that in the early 1970's reports of unjustified hospitalization of political and religious dissidents in psychiatric hospitals reached the West and the United States. In order to prevent an international scandal, the leadership of a totalitarian state, together with intelligence agencies, decided to set up a group of advocacy specialists who also developed a plan of major measures to expose anti-Soviet slander campaign on so-called «political abuses» in psychiatry; in spite of the measures taken by the leadership and special services of the totalitarian regime, regarding the debunking of the so-called «myths about punitive medicine in the USSR,» the international community has gathered a lot of facts and interviewed persons over which there were inhumane torture in medical institutions throughout the communist state, which proved to be evidence the fact that the USSR in the 70's and 80's of the twentieth century the main method of combating dissent was the repressive psychiatry.

ВІЙСЬКОВА ПОЛІТИКА ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЇ РАДИ В РАДЯНСЬКІЙ ІСТОРІОГРАФІЇ 1920–1980-х РОКІВ

The article examines the degree of studying the Ukrainian Central Council military policy by the Soviet historians from the beginning of 1917 to April 1918: considered the level of clarifying the issue about Ukrainianization Russian army military units, the creation of Ukrainian armed forces on Naddniprianschyna. The periodization was determined and the peculiarities of Soviet historiography formation on the topic under study were revealed. According to the results of the study, in the majority of Soviet historians’ works, the question of the Ukrainianization of the Russian army military units was considered solely in the context of the revolutionization process of the Russian army military units. Volunteer Ukrainian regiments and free-wing detachments were assessed in the line of Soviet class-based methodology as "punitive", "bourgeois-nationalist" formations. There are no reliable figures on the number of Ukrainian troops. The uncritical use of the materials of the state archives, the Soviet and the party press necessitated the ignoring of historicism and objectivity principles. At the same time it should be noted that even under the ideological scrutiny and political censorship of the 1920s and 1980s, Soviet researchers A. Likholat, S. Korolivsky, M. Rubach, N. Suprunenko, P. Garchev, A. Senderskyi, M. Yakupov, A. Tkachuk cited numerous facts in his writings that testified to the significant importance of the national component of the revolutionary processes, the significant influence of the national factor on the mass consciousness of soldiers and officers - Ukrainians. Under these conditions the main reasons for the defeat of Ukrainian military policy become apparent: the Central Council failed to form capable regular units using the support of the soldiers in the first stage of the revolution; the delay in carrying out agrarian reform contributed to the growing influence of the Bolsheviks in the Ukrainian village; refusal to build a regular army had fatal consequences for Ukrainian statehood.