Southwestern Slovenia Research Articles

The seasonal heavy metal signature and variations in the microbial mat (petola) of the Sečovlje Salina (northern Adriatic)

Purpose The Secovlje Salina is a part of Secovlje Salina Nature Park situated in south-western Slovenia (northern Adriatic). The key element of the centuries-old Slovenian tradition of salt production is the “petola”, i.e. the few-millimetre-thick microbial mat which covers the bottom of the crystallizing salt basins. Petola cultivation proceeds over the whole year, with seasonal variations of petola composition/characteristics. The purpose of this study was to investigate seasonal petola composition variability including heavy metals content.

Caves as Entrances to the World Beyond, from Where Fertility Is Derived. The Case of SW Slovenia<br>Jame kot vhod v onstranstvo, od koder izvira plodnost. Primer JZ Slovenije</br>

This paper addresses the question of the prevailing meaning of the caves on the basis of recently discovered folklore material and some archaeological discoveries from south-western Slovenia. Among the different meanings of caves in the local landscape, the author explores their function as the entrance to the world beyond, characterised by the unnatural passing of time. Obtaining new-borns from caves or keeping dead children in caves, frequently in connection with Baba or without her, rituals of fertility, and the sexual symbolism indicate that caves were perceived as places, from where fertility was derived.

Ustno izročilo o lintverju kot indikator ritualnega prostora antične skupnosti Ajdovščine nad Rodikom<br>The Oral Tradition about Lintver as an Indicator of the Ritual Place of Ajdovščina above Rodik’s Antique Community</br>

The article is part of a B.A. thesis in which the author studies the relations between folk traditions and archaeological research. She analyses the oral traditions related to a mythical figure called Lintver, a kind of a snake-like dragon that apparently lived in Jezero above village Rodik (southwestern Slovenia). Mid-nineteenth century descriptions and local oral traditions suggest that the parish in Brezovica organized regular monthly processions to the site to bewitch the devil. As Lintver’s dwelling-place lies in the immediate vicinity of Ajdovščina’s Roman cemetery, the paper considers the possibilities as to how the traditions about the mythical being could lead us to an ancient ritual place.

Characterization and fluorescence of yellow biofilms in karst caves, southwest Slovenia

Biofilms of different colours that colonize surfaces within karst caves represent a source of nutrients. They occur commonly and abundantly at sites with sediments, and close to seepages or underground rivers. Golden-yellow subaerial biofilms are particularly well observed because of their contrast with their surroundings, the characteristics of the pigment and recently, even more, due to the characteristics of light-emitting diode (LED) illumination. Yellow microbial biofilms were sampled from three caves in southwestern Slovenia, Dimnice, Križna jama and Sveta jama. The highest concentration of cultivable microbes (2.33×10 8 CFU/g) and the biggest number of identified bacteria (66.0%) were retrieved from a sample from Sveta jama. Using MALDI-TOF (Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-Of-Flight) for bacterial identification showed that different species of Pseudomonas prevailed in all samples. Yellow biofilms showed an absorption peak around 400 nm, and two emission peaks, a major in the blue (~460 nm) and a minor in the orange (~600 nm) parts of the spectrum when excited at 405 nm. Microbial mats that colonize surfaces are probably frequently overlooked in caves because they are difficult to observe when they have no pigmentation and the contrast with their surroundings is low. Additional studies are needed to aid the understanding of the role of pigmented biofilms and their interactions with underlying substrata in respect of the evolution of substrate micromorphology.

Uporaba digitalnega modela višin in satelitskega posnetka RapidEye za zaznavanje kraških kotanj in brezstropih jam Podgorskega krasa

Speleogeneza je proces nastajanja, razvoja in izginjanja jam. Zaključni stadij razvoja jame imenujemo brezstropa jama. Proučevanje le-teh nam lahko pomaga pri razumevanju krasa in kraških pojavov. Ker so brezstrope jame ali kotanje na površju ali le zaplate nekraških sedimentov z bujnejšim rastjem, v članku preučujemo možnosti kabinetnega prepoznavanja teh pojavov na podlagi njihovih morfometričnih lastnosti in spektralnih lastnosti vegetacije, ki jih prerašča. Raziskava je osredotočena na širše območje Podgorskega krasa v jugozahodni Sloveniji.

Podpeč limestone: a heritage stone from Slovenia

Abstract Podpeč Limestone is characterized by its dark grey or nearly black colour, contrasting with white fossil shells of the mollusc Lithiotis . This formation, which has been dated as Lower Jurassic, occurs in southern and southwestern Slovenia and is particularly conspicuous in areas SW of Ljubljana. The main quarry, which is not active, is located near the village of Podpeč near Ljubljana and has been recognized as a geological site of national importance; as such, it is officially protected as a natural monument. The utilization of Podpeč Limestone was first documented during the Roman period in Slovenia. At the end of the 5th century AD, with the decline of the Roman Empire, stone-cutting ceased at Podpeč for many centuries. Towards the end of the 19th century Podpeč Limestone became better-known. During the first half of the 20th century significant stonecutting workshops were established in Podpeč with most stone being supplied from the main quarry. The internationally renowned Slovenian architect Jože Plečnik (1872–1957) used Podpeč Limestone in various Slovenian buildings, some of national importance. The utilization and national recognition of Podpeč Limestone within Slovenia provide abundant support for its nomination as a Global Heritage Stone Resource.

Phytosociological description of Quercus petraea forest stands with Chamaecytisus hirsutus and Erica carnea in the Vipavska brda (southwestern Slovenia)

We conducted a phytosociological study of Quercus petraea stands, whose herb layer is dominated by Erica carnea in the flysch hills of Vipavska brda and on the margins of the Vrhe plateau (southwestern Slovenia). We have determined that they are a long-term degradation stage on beech forest sites from the association Seslerio autumnalis-Fagetum. Based on comparisons with similar sessile oak stands from associations Melampyro vulgati-Quercetum petraeae, Seslerio autumnalis-Quercetum petraeae and Erico carneae-Quercetum petraeae, the studied stands are classified into the new association Chamaecytiso hirsuti-Quercetum petraeae. They are best differentiated from the stands of compared communities by the species Erica carnea, Sorbus aria, Lathyrus linifolius, Loranthus europaeus and Erythronium dens-canis. The new association is classified into the alliance Carpinion orientalis and order Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae.

Surface Karst Landforms of the Notranjska region (south-western Slovenia)

The distribution and characteristics of surface karst landforms in the Notranjska region, exemplifi ed in the Cerknisica and Rak river catchment, is presented. The geomorphology of the examined area, with respect to on the micro-, meso- and macro- forms division, is described. The course and dynamics of morpho- genetic and geological processes are analyzed. A geotourist route linking the described landforms of surface karst is proposed.

New records and unusual morphology of the cave hydrozoan Velkovrhia enigmatica Matjašič & Sket, 1971 (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa: Bougainvilliidae)

Velkovrhia enigmatica is the only freshwater hydrozoan living exclusively in groundwater. It is endemic to the Dinarides in the Balkan Peninsula, where it has been known from four caves only. Here we report on a new V. enigmatica population from cave Logarček near Laze in southwestern Slovenia. In addition, after almost 30 years since its last recorded presence, we confirm the current presence of numerous V. enigmatica individuals in the type locality, Planinska jama. Individuals from the two caves were morphologically different: polyps from the type locality had 4–9 tentacles, while the ones from Logarček had 14–36 tentacles. The mitochondrial DNA sequences in populations from both caves did not differ. Additional research is needed to provide further insights into species taxonomy, biology and distribution.

A survey of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) distribution in Slovenia in 2007 and 2010

Spreading of the invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus in the southwestern part of Slovenia was studied in 2007 and 2010. The study was based on larval and adults search. Mosquito larvae were sampled with a dipper or a net from various artificial containers and the adults caught by human bait catches for 15 minutes. In 2007, the research was carried out in 64 municipalities, where 327 larval habitats were examined. Ae. albopictus was observed in 52 municipalities. Mosquito larvae were most often collected in small containers placed in shady areas. All the adults were caught near breeding sites. The species was found in most of the studied areas in south-western Slovenia, especially in its coastal part and near Nova Gorica. In 2010, a research was implemented in 12 municipalities that had proved negative for Ae. albopictus in 2007. The incidence of Ae. albopictus was surveyed in 100 larval habitats. The presence of Ae. albopictus was confirmed in almost all of the municipalities, which is an indicator of its firm establishment in the studied area.

Invertebrate drift during in-stream gravel extraction in the River Baca , Slovenia

Spatial and temporal variation in invertebrate drift during in-stream gravel extraction in a gravel-bed river in south western Slovenia (SE Europe) was investigated. Drift samples were collected at three sites (an upstream control site and two downstream impacted sites) on the first and third days of gravel extraction. Drift measured during gravel extraction was compared to the hyporheic invertebrate community at the site of gravel extraction. Significant differences in drift were observed between the sites (ANOVA, n = 18, F = 23.29, p <0.001 for the number of individuals h -1 , and F = 13.15, p <0.001 for the number of taxa h -1 ). Two way analysis of ANOVA revealed the significance of site (p < 0.01) for number of individuals h -1 , and of site (p <0.001) and site * date interaction (p < 0.001) for taxa number h -1 . Insect larvae dominated drift at the control site, while crustaceans dominated the drift on the third day at both impacted sites. PCA of drift and hyporheic samples explained 37.8 % of the variance in data by the first two ordination axes. Drift composition was most similar to the shallow hyporheos on the third day of excavation. The study demonstrates that gravel extraction induces drifting of meiofauna which normally do not occur in the drift and that mass drift can occur up to 200 m from the site of excavation. Drift rates were much higher (approximately 30 fold) than the rates observed during increased discharge (from 2-5 fold).

Magnetostratigraphy and fold tests from Račiška pečina and Pečina v Borštu caves (Classical Karst, Slovenia)

Clastic and chemogenic cave sediments were sampled and analyzed from Raciska pecina and Pecina v Borstu caves of southwestern Slovenia. Samples were subjected to both thermal and alternating field demagnetization; specimens belonging to the same sample of the same layer produce identical results. Unblocking temperatures of 540 to 560°C on average suggests magnetite as the principal carrier of magnetization. These directions also pass a reversals test indicating the demagnetization results are free of secondary overprints and have adequately averaged out paleosecular variation. Normally magnetized clays containing fauna belonging to the MN17 mammal biozone at a depth of ∼ 4 m in Raciska pecina cave indicate these clays were deposited at the beginning of the Olduvai subchron (1.95 Ma). Correlation with the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale (GPTS) indicates the base of the speleothems in Raciska pecina terminate in the upper part of subchron C2An.3n with numerous breaks in deposition, lasting up to 250 ka and more. Therefore rates of speleothem growth cannot be calculated. Fold tests on dome-like stalagmites of differing sizes and ages (Pleistocene, Pliocene) from the two caves indicate the domelike structures are primary.

Changing sediment dynamics due to natural reforestation in the Dragonja catchment, SW Slovenia

Under the influence of socio–economic changes in many regions in Europe, a trend of decreasing agricultural activity has been observed since the Second World War. The resulting reforestation profoundly changes water and sediment supply to river channels, deposition rates on the floodplains and erosion rates on the hillslopes. We studied these changes in the 91 km 2 Dragonja catchment in southwestern Slovenia. With the spatially distributed erosion and sediment delivery model WATEM/SEDEM, the hillslope sediment delivery to the river channel was calculated on the basis of parameters (soil and precipitation parameters, a DEM and land use) measured in the field and laboratory in 2002 and land use maps based on aerial photographs from 1954, 1975, 1985 and 1994. For two independent calibrations WATEM/SEDEM modelled a sharp decline of 69% in total hillslope sediment delivery from 1954 to 2002. As the sub-catchments Rokava and Upper-Dragonja did not reforest in the same way, the sediment yield response is different as well. Separate calculations show the same reduction (45%) in sediment yield from 1954 to 1975. After 1975 the sediment yield was stable in the Rokava sub-catchment. In the Upper-Dragonja the trend continued, to a total reduction of 76% of sediment outflow since 1954. The sources of fine sediment were determined by analysing the hysteresis of the discharge waves, and the suspended sediment texture. The sediment that leaves the catchment originates from three sources: hillslopes, erosional bedrock banks and sedimentary riverbanks. The analysis of the suspended sediment texture suggests that during a discharge wave the suspended sediment originates predominantly from the hillslopes. During low stage the sparse sediment in the water column largely originates from large bedrock banks. The sedimentary riverbanks are not an important source of suspended sediment.

Epigean Spider Diversity in the Classical Karst

Epigean Spider Diversity in the Classical KarstThe classical Karst (Kras in Slovenian) is a limestone karst plateau of south-western Slovenia and north-eastern Italy surrounded by flysch or alluvial areas. We explored surface spider species richness in the Karst by conducting a season-long quantitative inventory of the epigean fauna. By examining three localities, each with three succession-stage sites (grassland, overgrowth, forest) we tested for differences in alpha and beta diversity among different successions based on species incidence data. A total of 90 ethylene glycol pitfall traps (10 traps per each of nine sites) operated between 24. V. 2005 and 20. VII. 2006. We recorded a total of 3681 adult spiders belonging to 136 species, 82 genera and 30 families. Of these 28 species are new records for Slovenia. The observed species richness and total adult spider abundances were highest in the spring and early summer, and among succession stages they were highest in grassland (95 species; 1563 individuals), followed by overgrowth (81 species; 1047 individuals) and forest (64 species; 1071 individuals). By comparing our results with previous pitfall samplings in the Dinaric karst, we conclude that the sampling effort needed for a meaningful estimation of epigean spider diversity was barely sufficient

Proposed Methodology of Vulnerability and Contamination Risk Mapping for the Protection of Karst Aquifers in Slovenia

On the basis of work accomplished by the European COST Action 620, a comprehensive approach to groundwater vulnerability and contamination risk assessment is proposed, taking into account the special characteristics of Slovene karst aquifer systems. The Slovene Approach is consistent with national environmental legislation and enables comparison across European countries. The method integrates temporal hydrological variability in the concept of groundwater vulnerability and offers a new possibility to combine surface and groundwater source and resource protection, which required the development of a new K factor (karst groundwater flow within the saturated zone). The risk analysis considers intrinsic vulnerability, contamination hazards and the importance of the source or resource. It has been first applied to the Podstenjsek springs catchment in southwestern Slovenia and validated by means of two multi-tracer tests with a total of six injection points. The resulting vulnerability, hazard and risk maps are plausible, and the validation confirmed the vulnerability assessment at the representative sites that were selected for tracer injection. The maps provide improved source protection zones and make it possible to identify land mismanagement and to propose better practices for future planning.

Comparison of monthly and daily isotopic composition of precipitation in the coastal area of Slovenia†

The stable isotopic composition (δ2H and δ18O) of short-term (daily) precipitation collected from October 2002 to September 2003 at two stations in a coastal, karstic area in south-western Slovenia was investigated. In addition, monthly composite samples were collected and analysed for comparison with amount-weighted monthly means. The δ2H and δ18O values obtained show a wide range and reflect seasonal climatic variations. Deuterium excess and local meteoric water lines (LMWLs) were determined and cumulative frequency analysis and coincidence tests were performed. The statistical coincidence test showed that the LMWLs calculated from monthly data for Portorož and Kozina are coincident, but the LMWLs calculated from daily precipitation events are not. This difference could be explained by the greater variance of the isotopic composition of daily precipitation in comparison to monthly composite samples and also to the influence of evaporation during events below<1 mm at Portorož during the extremely dry and warm spring–summer season of 2003. Finally, synoptic maps and backward trajectories of a selected precipitation event showed that changes of isotopic composition are related to mixing of air masses originating from the continent and Mediterranean cyclogenesis. †Revised version of a paper presented at the 27th Annual Meeting of the German Association for Stable Isotope Research (GASIR), October, 4–6, 2006, Freiberg, Germany.

Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene Forbulge Unconformity Associated With Foreland Basin Evolution (Kras, Matarsko Podolje and Istria; SW Slovenia and NW Croatia)

A regional unconformity separates the Cretaceous passive margin shallow-marine carbonate sequence of Adriatic Carbonate Platform from the Upper Cretaceous and/or Paleogene shallow-marine sequences of synorogenic carbonate platform in southwestern Slovenia and Istria (a part of southwestern Slovenia and northwestern Croatia). The unconformity is expressed by irregular paleokarstic surface, locally marked by bauxite deposits. Distinctive subsurface paleokarstic features occur below the surface (e.g. filled phreatic caves, spongework horizons…). The age of the limestones that immediately underlie the unconformity and the extent of the chronostratigraphic gap in southwestern Slovenia and Istria systematically increase from northeast towards southwest, while the age of the overlying limestones decreases in this direction. Similarly, the deposits of synorogenic carbonate platform, pelagic marls and flysch (i.e. underfilled trinity), deposits typical of underfilled peripheral foreland basin, are also diachronous over the area and had been advancing from northeast towards southwest from Campanian to Eocene. Systematic trends of isochrones of the carbonate rocks that immediately under- and overlie the paleokarstic surface, and consequently, of the extent of the chronostratigraphic gap can be explained mainly by the evolution and topography of peripheral foreland bulge (the forebulge). The advancing flexural foreland profile was the result of vertical loading of the foreland lithospheric plate (Adria microplate) by the evolving orogenic wedge. Because of syn- and post-orogenic tectonic processes, and time discrepancy between adjacent foreland basin deposits and tectonic (“orogenic”) phases it is difficult to define the exact tectonic phase responsible for the evolution of the foreland complex. According to position and migration of the subaerially exposed forebulge, distribution of the foreland related macrofacies and orientation of tectonic structures, especially of Dinaric nappes, and Dinaric mountain chain I suggest that the foreland basin complex in western Slovenia and Istria was formed during mesoalpine (“Dinaric”) tectonic phase due to oblique collision between Austroalpine terrane/Tisia microplate and Adria microplate when probably also a segmentation of the foreland plate (Adria microplate) occurred.

Impact of natural reforestation on floodplain sedimentation in the Dragonja basin, SW Slovenia

AbstractChanges in floodplain sediment dynamics have profound effects on riverine habitats and riparian biodiversity. Depopulation due to socio‐economic changes in the Dragonja catchment (91 km2) in southwestern Slovenia resulted in the abandonment of agricultural fields, followed by natural reforestation since 1945. This profoundly changed the water and sediment supply to the streams, as well as floodplain sediment deposition.This paper presents a reconstruction of the development of the Dragonja floodplain due to these land use changes during the last 60 years. The reconstruction is based on dating of floodplain sediments using 137Cs profiles, measurement of actual sedimentation rates using artificial grass sedimentation mats, and linking this information to the present‐day hydrological behaviour of the river. The sedimentation mats showed that floodplain sedimentation was restricted to peak flows of considerable magnitude. Due to the reforestation, the return period of such high flows increased from 0·31 year in the period 1960–1985 to 0·81 year between 1986 and 2003, with commensurate changes in sedimentation rates. At the 1·5 m river terrace (formed about 60 years ago), 137Cs‐based sedimentation rates (1960–1986) were roughly twice the rates inferred from the artificial grass mats (2001–2003). This finding matches the increase in the return period for larger peak events during the 1986–2003 period, which caused fewer major inundations at this level. Conversely, sedimentation rates determined for the lowest terrace at 0·5 m were similar for both techniques (and periods) because the return periods of the peak events responsible for sediment deposition at this lower level did not change much over the period 1986–2003. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Spruce bark beetles ( Ips typographus, Pityogenes chalcographus, Col.: Scolytidae) in the Dinaric mountain forests of Slovenia: Monitoring and modeling

In this paper, we analyze the phenology of spruce bark beetles ( Ips typographus and Pityogenes chalcographus) in the Dinaric mountain forests of southwestern Slovenia. The study of I. typographus took place from 1986 to 2000, while that of P. chalcographus took place from 1993 to 2000 in an area characterized as a Dinaric Fir-Beech forest community ( Abieti- Fagetum dinaricum) on the Karst plateau (447–751 m above sea level). On the studied area Norway spruce ( Picea abies) has been planted between 60 and 90 years ago on approximately 1000 ha. Frequent catastrophic weather conditions are characteristic for this area, followed by an increased trophic capacity of the forest for the various bark beetle species. The population density of spruce bark beetles was monitored at five locations at varying exposures using commercial pheromones (Pheroprax ® and Chalcoprax ®) in traps under the trade name Theysohn. Both species studied ( I. typographus and P. chalcographus) have a relatively high abundance and have two main generations per year; both species may also produce two sister generations. Data on some environmental factors as well as data on bark beetle catches have been collected and then analyzed to model the dependence of spruce bark beetle catches on the environmental factors. The machine learning methodology of liner regression as well as model tree induction was used for this purpose. The following attributes were used to analyze the occurrence of both species of bark beetle: position (NW, NE, W, E, N and S), age of pheromone, number of days since last monitoring, average monthly temperature, monthly precipitation, month and previous number of bark beetles. There was a strong correlation between a high population density of I. typograpus and Northeast (NE) and position and a high density of populations of P. chalcographus and West (W) and North (N) positions.

Decorated stones from the open-air site of Zemono, Slovenia

In this brief note I describe two decorated stones recently excavated from the open air site of Zemono in south-western Slovenia. The site of Zemono, which lies at the foot of a small hill with the same name, was found during archeological surveys carried out in advance of the construction of a highway. Only a portion of the site was excavated: that part threatened by the development. The rest of the site is now protected as a national monument, and no further excavation is anticipated in the immediate future. As the analysis of the excavated material has just begun, only a brief account of what was found at the site is presented here. As yet there are no dates available, so the exact age of the site is not known, but it is thought to be late Palaeolithic or early Mesolithic. During the excavation six hearths and more than 5000 stone tools were found (Tica 2003), about 400 of which can be typologically classified. There are a lot of endscrapers, backed bladelets, scrapers and retouched blades and flakes. Most of the raw material is local chert, but some tools are made from exotic chert of better quality. Few flakes and one blade were made from rock crystal. Other finds include badly preserved animal bones, several pieces of ochre and two decorated stones. Deposits indicate that, at some time, a small river flowed through the site (Tica 2003). The first of the two decorated stones (Plate 1) is a piece of slate with a geometric patterns incised on both sides. The incisions are very delicate and hard to notice. On one side there are eight zigzag lines (Plate 1A), while on the other side there is a ladder motif and a long line with smaller perpendicular ones (Plate IB). On the second stone there is a much simpler pattern, composed of parallel and perpendicular lines (Plate 2). The stone is rich with iron, so freshly engraved lines were red, which may very well have had some symbolic significance. Besides these two decorated stones from Zemono, only a few engraved artifacts are known from Slovenian Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites. At the Aurignacian site Potocka zijalka, engraved bone points were found (Brodar and Brodar 1983). The incisions have been interpreted as decoration, or 'art', but there is also a possibility that the bone points