Southwestern Anatolia Research Articles

Bioactive constituents of Salvia chrysophylla Stapf

The dichloromethane extract of the aerial parts of Salvia chrysophylla Stapf (Lamiaceae), which is an endemic species to south-western Anatolia, was studied for non-volatile secondary metabolites for the first time in this study. Structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated as sclareol, β-sitosterol, salvigenin, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid. The lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity and the DPPH free radical scavenging activity of the pure isolates were investigated to establish their antioxidant potential. Their anticholinesterase activity was carried out by the Ellman assay against both enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase, and diterpene sclareol exhibited fairly good activity against both the enzymes while the two triterpenoids oleanolic and ursolic acids exhibited selective activity against AChE.

<p class="HeadingRunIn"><strong><em>Pinguicula habilii </em>(Lentibulariaceae), a new carnivorous species from South-West Anatolia, Turkey</strong></p>

Pinguicula habilii (Lentibulariaceae), described as a new species of carnivorous plants, is distributed in the province of Mugla in Southwestern Anatolia, Turkey. A full description, diagnostic morphological characters, and detailed photographs of this new species including SEM microphotographs of seed and pollen are given. The new species belongs to the section Cardiophyllum o f Pinguicula subgenus Isoloba. It resembles the P. crystallina and P. hirtiflora. It differs from the related species by its heterophyllous growth, leaf shape and peculiar seed coat sculpture. It grows on serpentine rocks at elevations between 100 and 200 m.

High-resolution surface wave tomography beneath the Aegean-Anatolia region: constraints on upper-mantle structure

This study provides new constraints on the upper-mantle structure from western Greece to central Anatolia using seismic data of permanent broad-band networks recently installed in Greece and Turkey and from a two-year temporary array (SIMBAAD experiment). We used ∼200 seismic events recorded at 146 broad-band stations with a typical interstation distance of 60-100 km across the study area. The high-resolution 3-D shear wave velocity model of the mantle is obtained by inversion of fundamental-mode Rayleigh wave phase velocity maps for periods between 20 and 195 s. The tomography is based on ray tracing in heterogeneous media taking into account external propagation effects. The horizontal resolution is approximately 100 km, however small heterogeneities may suffer from some horizontal smearing and damping. The vertical resolution is approximately 100 km. The vertical smoothing is necessary to avoid unresolved spurious shear wave velocity oscillations in the upper mantle. The errors on shear wave velocities in our 3-D model (0.02–0.1 km s−1) are significantly smaller than the amplitude of Vs variations (0.3–0.5 km s−1). In spite of the vertical and horizontal smoothing, our model shows details in the upper-mantle structure never reached at regional scale in the area. The overall structure is characterized by a low-velocity zone (80–200 km depth) reflecting a slow and warm asthenosphere underlying a thin lithosphere. The southwesternmost termination of the low-velocity anomaly corresponds to the northward dipping Hellenic slab. The detailed shear velocity structure of the upper mantle beneath Anatolia appears to be far more geometrically complex than revealed in previous tomographic studies of the area. At depths larger than or equal to 160 km, velocities are overall high beneath Anatolia, partly due to the presence of dipping high-velocity anomalies which we tentatively interpret as remnant slabs. The southernmost high-velocity anomaly beneath Anatolia is separated from the eastern edge of the Hellenic slab by a major low-velocity anomaly which we interpret as the trace of asthenospheric mantle material rising inside a vertical slab tear beneath southwestern Anatolia.

Ultrapotassic Mafic Rocks as Geochemical Proxies for Post-collisional Dynamics of Orogenic Lithospheric Mantle: the Case of Southwestern Anatolia, Turkey

High-Mg ultrapotassic volcanic rock occurrences of lamproitic affinity are exposed in southwestern Anatolia, mostly within the Menderes Massif. From north to south the lamproitic volcanism shows increasingly younger ages ranging from 20 to 4 Ma. Volcanism is contemporaneous with more voluminous shoshonitic, high-K calc-alkaline, and ultrapotassic magmatic activity in the Simav–Selendi, Usak, Kirka, Koroglu, Afyon and Isparta–Golcuk areas. The southward decrease in the age of the volcanism correlates with changes in geochemical composition, particularly a decrease in 87Sr/86Sr, 207Pb/204Pb, Zr/Nb and Th/Nb, and an increase in 143Nd/144Nd, 176Hf/177Hf, 206Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/204Pb and Ce/Pb, thus delineating a systematic change from orogenic (crust-like) to anorogenic (convecting mantle-like) signatures. Rare earth element compositions of clinopyroxene phenocrysts demonstrate an increasing role for residual garnet for locations in the central parts of the Menderes Massif, indicating a lithosphere thickness greater than 80 km. In contrast, K2O abundances remain nearly constant at around 7%, indicating buffering by phlogopite in the mantle source. Magma genesis in southwestern Anatolia is controlled by post-collisional extensional events initiated after major lithospheric thickening. Geochemical constraints suggest that the mantle source experienced two main geodynamic stages. The first stage caused ultradepletion of the mantle and subsequent metasomatic enrichment, which allowed coupling of the geochemical signatures of ultradepleted harzburgite with those of crust-derived sediments. This happened during the final closure stages of the southern Neotethys Ocean and the accretion of forearc oceanic lithosphere (island-arc type), as shallowly subducted material to the Anatolian lithosphere. The second stage is post-collisional, and is related to the collapse of the orogenic belt and the development of extension-related horst and graben structures. This stage is concurrent with the initiation of a thermal anomaly originating from a gap, identified by seismic tomography, in the subducted slab under western Anatolia. We propose that the lithospheric mantle underwent intense ‘asthenospherization’ owing to lithosphere–asthenosphere interaction, caused by the southward expansion of this gap during slab roll-back. The geochemical resemblance of the lamproites to more voluminous, contemporaneous shoshonitic magmas implies their derivation from a heterogeneous mantle source that had been affected by similar processes. These mantle processes may be closely associated with the major episode of uplift in the Menderes Massif.

FRESH EAR YIELD AND GROWING DEGREE-DAYS OF SWEET CORN IN DIFFERENT SOWING DATES IN SOUTHWESTERN ANATOLIA REGION

The study was carried out with the aim to determine optimum sowing date and growing degree-days (GDD) of sweet corn using different sowing dates from April to June during the 2009 and 2010 growing seasons under semi-arid ecological conditions of the Southwestern Anatolia Region. The research included five sowing dates 1 st April, 15 th April, 1 st May, 15 th May and 1 st June. The experiment was set up as Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Lumina F1 hybrid sweet corn cultivar was used as an experimental materials. Sowing dates had a significant effect on harvest period, emergence rate, fresh ear yield and yield characteristics. Compared with the corn, sowing dates from April to June the corn sowed in the earlier had longer total growth period. The maximum fresh ear yields (14648.3 and 14568.3 kg ha -1 , respectively) were obtained from May l and the highest fresh ear number (64976.7 and 64915.7 number ha -1 , respectively) recorded from May l5 sowing date in 2009 and 2010 years. The highest emergence rate (93.3 and 91.7 %, respectively) was determined from June 1 in both years. The highest ear diameter (44.8 and 44.9 mm), ear length (18.7 and 18.3 cm, respectively), number of kernels per ear (566.4 and 551.7 grain, respectively) and ear weight (225.2 and 224.7 g, respectively) were observed from May 1 sowing date in 2009 and 2010 years. Total GDD accumulated as milk stage period of sweet corn in different sowing dates occurred between 578.9-938.8 0 C in 2009 and 646.7-1025.5 0 C in 2010.

Chemical composition and nutritional value of a wild edible ectomycorrhizal mushroom, Tricholoma anatolicum

The chemical composition and nutritional value of a wild edible ectomycorrhizal mushroom from southwestern Anatolia, Tricholoma anatolicum, were analyzed. Moisture, crude oil, protein, ash, total carbohydrate content, and mineral composition of the mushrooms studied, including Fe, Na, K, Zn, Cu, Ca, Cd, and Pb, were determined. The energy values of the samples were also calculated. The analyses were conducted during the 3 different growing stages of the mushrooms: mycelium, young fruiting bodies, and mature fruiting bodies. The highest values for moisture and crude oil contents were found to be in the mycelium, ash, and carbohydrate content of young fruiting bodies. In addition, Na content was found to be the highest in mycelium. The highest values for Fe were found in the young fruiting bodies, and K, Zn, Cu, and Ca were at their highest values in mature bodies. None of the samples contained heavy metals Cd or Pb.

A New Taxon of Linum (Linaceae) from Southwest Anatolia, Turkey

A new taxon, Linum hirsutum L. subsp. bozdaghense Yılmaz & Kaynak (Linaceae), is described from southwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It is similar to L. hirsutum subsp. oreocaricum P. H. Davis, from which it differs mainly in the shape and indumentum of leaves and in petal color. Diagnostic, morphological, and geographical data are discussed, and a revised key to the subspecies of L. hirsutum is given.

Natural radionuclide emission from coal-fired power plants in the southwestern of Turkey and the population exposure to external radiation in their vicinity

To evaluate the effect of radionuclide emission on the environment from Yataǧan, Yeniköy and Kemerköy coal-fired power plants which are located in southwestern Anatolia of Turkey, the concentrations of natural radionuclides such as 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in coal, bottom ash and fly ash samples, have been measured, as well as the concentration of the same radionuclides in surface soils. The dose rate arises from the total radioactivity content of soil that the people living by the power plants are exposed to be assessed additionally. The average activity concentrations of 226Ra for Yataǧan CPP is 80 ± 22 Bq kg–1 ranging from 56 to 131 Bq kg–1, for Yeniköy CPP is 138 ± 20 Bq kg–1 ranging from 115 to 189 Bq kg–1, for Kemerköy CPP is 238 ± 80 Bq kg–1 ranging from 134 to 356 Bq kg–1 in coal; average activity concentrations of 226Ra in fly ash and in bottom ash for above-mentioned power plants are 334 ± 60 Bq kg–1 ranging from 291 to 481 Bq kg–1, 461 ± 33 Bq kg–1 ranging from 398 to 511 Bq kg–1, 815 ± 254 Bq kg–1 ranging from 316 to 1260 Bq kg–1, 276 ± 51 Bq kg–1 ranging from 222 to 349 Bq kg–1, 285 ± 69 Bq kg–1 ranging from 213 to 409 Bq kg–1, 743 ± 234 Bq kg–1 ranging from 366 to 1098 Bq kg–1, respectively. The radionuclides activity concentrations of surface soil in the vicinity of coal-fired power plants are 32 ± 9 Bq kg–1 (18–53 Bq kg–1) for 226Ra, 37 ± 16 Bq kg–1 (17–89 Bq kg–1) for 232Th, 455 ± 165 Bq kg–1 (203–794 Bq kg–1) for 40K relevant to Yataǧan CPP; 42 ± 30 Bq kg–1 (9–168 Bq kg–1) for 226Ra, 32 ± 14 Bq kg–1 (6–74 Bq kg–1) for 232Th, 365 ± 151 Bq kg–1 (117–937 Bq kg–1) for 40K relevant to Yeniköy and Kemerköy CPP. As a result, average dose rates in the vicinity of coal-fired power plants have been calculated to be 56 ± 16 nGy h–1 ranging from 30 to 100 nGy h–1 for Yataǧan CPP, 54 ± 22 nGy h–1 ranging from 15 to 126 nGy h–1 for Yeniköy and Kemerköy CPP. To sum up, the natural radionuclide activity concentrations of burnt coal and ashes thrown out from these three power plants are quite high relative to the world average UNSCEAR[ 1 ] data. In addition, the average 226Ra, 232Th and 40K activity concentration values of surface soil samples and the calculated gamma dose rates in the vicinity of power plants were located within the worldwide intervals reported by UNSCEAR,[ 30 ] with some local differences.

Lamproites as indicators of accretion and/or shallow subduction in the assembly of south-western Anatolia, Turkey

The geochemistry and mineralogy of lamproites from south-western Anatolia can be used as a snapshot of the lithospheric composition beneath the Menderes Massif. High and near-constant K2O contents, the presence of mantle xenocrystic phlogopite and olivine, highly magnesian olivine phenocrysts and Cr-rich spinel inclusions all indicate that the lithospheric mantle was phlogopite-bearing ultradepleted harzburgite at the time of lamproite eruption (20–4 Ma). This mantle assemblage most probably originated in a complex multistage process, including (intra-oceanic) supra-subduction zone depletion during the final stages of southern Neotethyan ocean closure, and accretion of the forearc oceanic lithosphere as shallowly subducted material to the already assembled Anatolia. The data presented here support shallow subduction of the oceanic lithosphere as a cause of the uplift of the Menderes Massif, in contrast to the traditional core-complex model. Terra Nova, 00, 000–000, 2010

Stratigraphic correlation of the Neogene basins in southwestern Anatolia: Regional palaeogeographical, palaeoclimatic and tectonic implications

The extensional intramontane grabens that formed in southwestern Anatolia in the Late Cenozoic bear the unique tectono-sedimentary, palaeontological and palynological record of a region that underwent rapid transition from the last compressional pulses of the Alpine orogeny to the tectonic phase of orogen collapse and the onset of neotectonic regime. The change in tectonic regime was accompanied by regional climatic changes, recorded by the sedimentary environments of the basins and evidenced by palaeontological and palynological data. The late Early to mid-Middle Miocene was characterized by a warm and humid subtropical climate with densely forested wetlands. The late Middle to Late Miocene witnessed a change to arid climatic conditions, with grass-dominated steppe ecosystems. The Pliocene climate was warm and humid, with savannah-type open habitats. In terms of their stratigraphic development, the southwestern Anatolian basins form two distinct groups. One group is represented by the Denizli, Söke and Yatağan basins, which commenced their development in the Early Burdigalian and underwent similar phases of environmental change: (1) the Burdigalian phase of alluvial environment and redbed deposition; (2) the Late Burdigalian–Langhian phase of alluvial sedimentation accompanied by the formation of “terminal” lakes; (3) the Serravallian–Middle Tortonian phase of the formation of shallow perennial lakes; (4) the Middle Tortonian–Messinian phase of lake expansion and deepening, followed by shrinking and shallowing; (5) the Pliocene phase of lake expansion and deepening; and (6) the erosional Quaternary phase of two-stage alluvial sedimentation separated by a high-relief erosional unconformity. The other, younger group of tectonic grabens is represented by the Karacasu, Bozdoğan, Çameli and Eşen basins, which commenced their development in the earliest Tortonian and underwent common environmental changes: (1) the Tortonian phase of alluvial environment and redbed deposition, coeval with the phase of lake drying in the Denizli, Söke and Yatağan basins; (2) the Messinian phase of the formation of “terminal” lakes, coeval with the re-establishment of shallow lakes in the three other basins; (3) the Zanclean phase of shallow perennial lakes, coeval with the expansion and deepening of lakes in the other basins; (4) the Piacenzian phase of deep lacustrine environments; (5) the Gelasian phase of shallow lacustrine environments; and (6) the erosional Quaternary phase of two-stage alluvial sedimentation, similar as in the other basins. In spite of the time offset in their development, the two basin groups have been strongly modulated by climate and hence show correlative responses to regional climatic changes. Despite the time offset in their tectonic development, the two basin groups showed correlative environmental changes imposed by regional climatic conditions. The basins were environmentally unified by the Quaternary alluvial phase of their development. In the Late Cenozoic, Anatolia was at the crossroads of fauna migration routes between Africa, Asia and Europe, and the palaeontological data from the southwestern Anatolian basins shed more light on this phenomenon. The study as a whole contributes to a better understanding of the Late Cenozoic environmental, climatical and biogeographical changes in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Morchella anatolica (Ascomycota), a new species from southwestern Anatolia, Turkey

Morchella anatolica (Ascomycota, Pezizales, Morchellaceae), a new species collected from pine forest of southwestern Anatolia, Turkey, is described and illustrated.

Gem-Quality Diaspore Crystals as an Important Element of the Geoheritage of Turkey

Diaspore crystals (AlO(OH)) of worldwide gem quality are only found in Turkey. Therefore, they highlight mineralogical geosites in the discussion of geoconservation and must be considered as an important element of the geoheritage of Turkey. These crystals, which have a transparent appearance, vitreous striated outer surface, perfect cleavage, sometimes giant sizes, and V-shaped twinning, have only been extracted from one mine deposit in the southwestern Anatolia since 1972. These crystals may be named as Anatolian diaspore crystals individually. Since 2005, they have been sold under the trade name “zultanite” in the world gem market. The diaspore crystals and associated minerals in the paragenesis, such as muscovite, chloritoid, donbassite, ilmenite, and specular hematite, are also unique with regard to their origin. They were formed as remobilized secondary mineralization in fracture zones that cross-cut a karst unconformity-type diasporite ore surrounded by Ilbirdagi marbles in the southwestern part of the Menderes massif (Milas—Mugla region) during the Paleogene Period. The existence of Anatolian diaspore crystals is limited to only one deposit, thus constituting a geosite. This geosite is already inscribed in the list of the geological frameworks of Turkey as a result of the initiatives of the Turkish Association for the Conservation of the Geological Heritage. Nevertheless, an effective protection of this geosite is not yet implemented by the Turkish authorities.

Threatened fishes of the world: Capoeta bergamae Karaman, 1969 (Cyprinidae)

Common name: Bergama barb (E), Bergama Siraz baligi (Tr). Conservation status: Listed as vulnerable (defined by VU A2c criteria) in the IUCN International Red List (Crivelli 2006). Kucuk (2006) reported this species as endangered (EN). Identification: D iii-iv/7–8, A iii/5, Ll. 62–72, L. transversal 11–13/7–8, gill rakers 16–20. Body fusiform, more or less elongated, covered in medium-sized scales. Mouth slightly inferior, with two very short barbels. Lower lip has a thin horny layer. Last simple ray of the dorsal fin is ossified but weak for 2/3 length with feebly developed serration (Karaman 1969; Balik 1995; Geldiay and Balik 2007). Drawing by A. Kerem Bakir. Distribution: Restricted to western and south-western Anatolia (from Bakir Stream to Dalaman Stream) (Geldiay and Balik 2007). Abundance: Formerly a common fish species of western Anatolia, but now populations are decreasing. Habitat and ecology: Mostly a riverine species. It lives in relatively cool running waters with rocky and pebbly substrate. Reproduction: Breeding season is from early April to June. The age of sexual maturity is more than 2 years. Egg diameter is 1.5–2.0 mm (Geldiay and Balik 1977). Threats: Threatened by domestic and industrial wastewater pollution, including water extraction for consumption and irrigation. Conservation action: The species is officially protected by prohibiting fishing during the spawning period. Conservation recommendations: Pollution from industrial and domestic effluent should be reduced. A detailed study of the current population status, ecology and life history of is required. Water pumping from the streams for irrigation must be limited. Remarks: Initially recorded as Capoeta capoeta bergamae, but should be Capoeta bergamae (Turan et al. 2006; Turan 2008).

The genesis, mineralization, and stratigraphic significance of phosphatic/glauconitic condensed limestone unit in the Manavgat Basin, SW Turkey

A condensed hemipelagic limestone unit with glauconite and phosphate separates a drowned Late Burdigalian carbonate platform from overlying Langhian pelagic mudstones, marls, and calcarenitic tempestites within the Neogene Manavgat Basin of southwestern Anatolia, Turkey. The unit consists of coeval lenticular limestone bodies, between 1 cm and 15 m in thickness, ranging from 10 m to 3 km in lateral extent. The P2O5 content of this limestone ranges from 0.2 to 10% by weight and the iron-oxide, clay, and other metal-oxide contents of this unit substantially exceed those of the underlying and overlying rocks. This condensed stratigraphic unit was deposited on the southwesterly outer shelf portions of drowned horsts that directly faced upwelling currents. The unit displays three main facies: 1) glauconitic phosphate crusts associated with hardgrounds; 2) bedded glauconitic-phosphatic limestones; and 3) glauconitic-phosphatic limestones interbedded with resedimented limestones. Facies (1) forms the thinnest units whereas facies (3) is the thickest, since the thickness and spatial distribution of this facies are related to environmental contrasts caused by block faulting of the underlying carbonate platform. This lithostratigraphic unit of hemipelagic glauconite–phosphate deposition represents an interval of maximum flooding in tectonically active situations and depositional hiatus on submarine highs that separate the carbonate transgressive systems tract from the overlying terigenic tempestite highstand systems tract. This appears to be the sole condensed unit within the Miocene Manavgat Basin; and is here ascribed to a third-order (2.3) eustatic rise in sea level comprising the maximum flooding of the first-order cycle. This is also the time for early–Mid Miocene major changes in Mediterranean climate from tropical to temperate.

Late Miocene nonmarine sedimentation and formation of magnesites in the Acıgöl Basin, southwestern Anatolia, Turkey

The Late Miocene lacustrine Acıgöl Basin, SW Turkey, formed as an orogen-top, extensional half-graben, with the subaqueous accommodation controlled by the lake level and the bulk accommodation provided by active subsidence along a WSW-trending normal fault at the basin's southern margin. The basin-fill sedimentary succession consists of terminal alluvial-fan facies overlain by ephemeral lake-margin facies and perennial lake facies, with widespread fluvial facies at the top. The distal alluvial-fan facies include massive to stratified sandstones and massive mudstones with intervening nodular dolostones and incipient pedogenic horizons. The lake-margin facies are micritic magnesites passing laterally into peloidal, irregularly laminated magnesites towards the palaeolake margin and overlain by marlstones and dolostones, all with abundant evidence of episodic subaerial exposure (desiccation cracks, pedogenic features, and tepee structures). The perennial lake facies are micritic magnesites passing upwards into clayey dolostones and dolomitic or clayey marlstones. The fluvial facies capping the succession include planar cross-stratified conglomerates (channel-fill deposits), planar parallel-stratified, planar cross-stratified and rippled cross-laminated sandstones (crevasse-fill and crevasse splay deposits), and assemblages of mudstones intercalated with thin sandstone beds (overbank floodplain deposits). The sedimentological, mineralogical and geochemical data reveal large variations in the basin's hydrological regime, including short-term oscillations and bulk rise of the lake level, periodical changes in the Mg/Ca ratio and terrigenous mud supply, and a negative covariance of δ 18O and δ 13C fluctuations. The composition of terrigenous sediment and the chemistry of water supplied to the lake were controlled by the weathering, chemical leaching and erosion of the ultramafic–dolomitic bedrock in the catchment area. The bedrock yielded Mg-rich carbonate solutions that caused the deposition of Mg-carbonates in the lake. Despite short-term lake-level fluctuations, the lake's net water budget remained positive. It is suggested that the region's present-day climate and Mg-rich alkaline lakes can serve as an analogue for the climatic and hydrological conditions in the Late Miocene Acıgöl Basin.

Genetische Untersuchungen an altweltlichen Zahnkarpfen der Tribus Aphaniini (Pisces, Cyprinodontidae) nach Gesichtspunkten der Neuen Systematik*

Summary In the course of investigations described in the present paper was included every species of the Near East and Mediterranean genus Aphanius, the Anatolian genus Anatolichthys sensu Kosswig and SozeR 1945, Burdur-fish sensu AksLiray 1952 and Kosswigichthys sensu Sozer 1942. The analysis of morphological, cytological and other characters have proved the following species to be valid ones: Aphanius sophiae (Heckel) 1846, A. cypris.9 (Heckel) 1843, A.fasciatus (Humboldt et Val.) 1821, A. iberus (Cuv. et Val.) 1846, A. apodus (Gervais) 1863 and A. dispar (Ruppell) 1826. By these investigations we may learn that the different cyprinodonts endemic to Anatolia belong to the genus Aphanius as well. In clarifying the relationship between Aphanius and the endemic group of Anatolian cyprinodonts numerous crossbreeding experiments were made from which were drawn the conclusions that: I. two groups of normally scaled Anatolian Aphanius exist, not being distinguishable from each other by external characters but only by sexual barriers (hybrid male-sterility). They are so-called sibling-species. The one, living in the drainage of the river Kizilirmak/Easterncentral Anatolia has to be named Aphanius chantrei (Gaillard) 1895. The other one, occupying central Anatolia and parts of western and southwestern Anatolia has to be named Aphnius anatoliae (Leidenfrost) 1912. 2. the so-called Anatolichthys and Burdur-fish are not valid forms. They are scale-reduced specimens belonging in the “formenkreis” of A. anatoliae as it is shown by different degrees of hybrid-interfertility. 3. Kosswigichthys is no funduline cyprinodont but a form very nearly related to Anatolian Aphanius. Its systematical status will be pointed out in a separate revision of the tribe Aphaniini as well aa the position of the other Anatolian Aphanius. The different types of hybrid-interfertility as well as hybrid-intersterility may be explained by a hypothetical system of independently mendelizing genes which will form a well-balanced complex in each population. These complexes became different, in part, depending on the period of evolution and degree of isolation-conditions in which the different species and their populations were caused to live in the past. The mechanism by which these gene-systems might have been changed is that of “substitution-genes and transfer of gene-function” (Kosswig 1947, see: Muller 1942). Regarding the characters “scale-reduction” and “tooth-shape” (tricuspid or conical) the opinion waa put forward that there might be correlations between the type of chemistry of the waters inhabited by the different populations and the degree of scaling. True fresh-water populations never will show scale-reduction (with one excep tion: the Gocpuk-population, which to-day secundarily lives under fresh-water conditions). Each population, however, living under SO,-brackish water-conditions - or any other chemical extreme - show in its specimens scale-reduction and more or less conically formed teeth besides normally shaped, tricuspid ones. This means, that populations which show these characters need not be accepted any longer descendants of a hypothetical “hybrid-swarm” sensu AksLiray 1952 or KOVSWIQ 1953 et al. The mechanism which possibly might cause polymorphism in scaling and tooth-structure is baaed upon a polygenic system of pleiotropic genes and works in interaction with selection-pressure.

The Eumyarion (Mammalia, Rodentia, Muridae) assemblage from Sandelzhausen (Miocene, Southern Germany): a test on homogeneity

A large sample of Eumyarion cheek teeth (N = 569) from the Early/Middle Miocene boundary locality Sandelzhausen (MN5, Southern Germany), type locality E. bifidus Fahlbusch, 1964, is studied. It is concluded that this collection contains two species: E. bifidus and E. weinfurteri Schaub and Zapfe, 1953. The similarity in size and morphology of the cheek teeth of these two species is so great that only the M1 and M2 can be recognised with certainty. Eumyarion bifidus seems to be a descendant of E. orhani de Bruijn et al., 2006 from the Early Miocene (MN3) of Southwestern Anatolia and is therefore considered to be an immigrant into Central Europe.

Age and Chemistry of Miocene Volcanic. Rocks from the Kiraz Basin of the Küçük Menderes Graben: Its Significance for the Extensional Tectonics of Southwestern Anatolia, Turkey'

Neogene volcanic rocks and granitoid plutons are among the most important geological components of western Turkey. Although they are voluminous north of the Gediz Graben, they are very scarce to the south, where volcanic rocks occur as isolated small exposures in a small number of localities. The Kiraz Basin of the Küçük Menderes Graben is a key locality, in which Tertiary volcanic rocks crop out at three locations. These rocks have been chemically analysed and dated (39Ar-40Ar whole rock and biotite analyses) in order to understand their tectonic setting of emplacement and its relation to the wider structure of western Anatolia. Whole rock and biotite 39Ar-40Ar ages vary between 13.9 ± 0.2 Ma and 14.6 ± 0.2 Ma. The Kiraz volcanic rocks are calc-alkaline, with a compositional range from basaltic andesite to dacite. They are strongly enriched in the light ion lithophile elements (LILE) and have chemistries typical of lavas erupted in subduction-related settings. Their close association with rift-bounding faults suggests eruptions via conduits flanking grabens in an extensional environment. The difference in chemical composition and age between the Kiraz volcanic rocks and the slightly older calc-alkaline volcanic rocks north of the Gediz Graben is attributed to their relatively younger ages and greater proximity to the Aegean Arc. Their calc-alkaline chemistry reflects magma generation influenced by the slab descending beneath this arc and eruption/emplacement in an extensional setting.

A Late Miocene Paratethyan mollusc fauna from the Denizli Basin (southwestern Anatolia, Turkey) and its regional palaeobiogeographic implications

We report on a Late Miocene mollusc fauna from a single locality in the Denizli Basin in southwestern Turkey that is composed of ten presumably euryhaline species and three freshwater species. The fauna is remarkably distinct from faunas of the adjacent Late Miocene Aegean and Euxinian Basins, and has elements in common with the modern Caspian Sea fauna in the form of Didacna species. The suggested age of the fauna (Late Miocene) would extend the stratigraphic range of the lymnocardiid genus Didacna (hitherto Calabrian-Extant) considerably. The palaeobiogeographic significance of the Denizli fauna is discussed.

Continental vs. oceanic lithosphere beneath the eastern Mediterranean Sea — Implications from Rayleigh wave dispersion measurements

Tectonics of the eastern Mediterranean are strongly influenced by subduction of oceanic lithosphere with slab pull as a prominent driving force. The current distribution of remnants of oceanic lithosphere and the properties of African mantle lithosphere beneath the eastern Mediterranean basin have been a matter of debate. Previous studies variously found continental as well as oceanic lithosphere in this region. A set of 1-D S-wave velocity models is determined in order to characterize the mantle lithosphere in the area between Crete and the Middle East. For seven paths starting from Cyprus and running to Crete, to Anatolia as well as to the Middle East, broad-band average phase velocity curves of the fundamental Rayleigh mode are obtained in the frequency range of about 3 mHz to 90 mHz by a two-station method. In addition, an east–west oriented path crossing southern Anatolia and a path running parallel to the Dead Sea Fault Zone are considered. Phase velocity curves are inverted for path average 1-D S-wave velocity models. Resolution is investigated with the Neighbourhood Algorithm. Comparing the resulting 1-D models, cold oceanic mantle lithosphere showing S-wave velocities above 4.6 km s − 1 can be distinguished from mantle lithosphere with low S-wave velocities. Oceanic lithosphere is found west of Cyprus beneath the Herodotus basin. As indicated by Benioff zones, it is subducting towards northwest in the southeastern Aegean and towards northeast beneath southwestern Anatolia. To the east of Cyprus the mantle lithosphere beneath the easternmost Mediterranean Sea shows low S-wave velocities. No indications for cold oceanic mantle lithosphere are found beneath the Levant basin. In the region of the Dead Sea Fault Zone and the Levant basin the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary is located at shallow depths of about 60 km to 80 km. The DSFZ is situated in a region of thinned lithosphere underlain by an asthenosphere with anomalous low S-wave velocities. Low S-wave velocities beneath southern Anatolia extend down to at least 150 km depth as expected for a back arc setting. Inferred Moho depths vary for the different paths between 28 km and 41 km.