Southwest Michigan Research Articles

Integrated Pharmacies at Community Mental Health Centers: Medication Adherence and Outcomes.

Patients receiving psychiatric services at community mental health centers (CMHCs) are often prescribed medication that is critical to the treatment of behavioral health conditions, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, anxiety, and depression. Previous studies have shown correlation between rates of medication adherence and risk of hospitalization, but potential differences in medication adherence and other outcomes for patients of CMHCs by pharmacy type have not been widely studied. To determine potential benefits of placing a pharmacy within a mental health service delivery setting on both adherence to medication and health outcomes. A retrospective cohort analysis of medication adherence rates, hospital and emergency department (ED) use, and related costs between patients of CMHCs was conducted using integrated pharmacies versus community pharmacies. Data were from Medicaid claims paid by Southwest Michigan Behavioral Health for all (behavioral and nonbehavioral) inpatient and outpatient services as well as pharmacy prescriptions filled from April 1, 2014, through April 30, 2015. The primary study analysis was composed of an adult dataset representing persons served from 1 of the 2 CMHCs who had filled at least 2 prescriptions for a specific medication from 1 of 2 Genoa pharmacies located in a CMHC during the study period. Each unique patient dataset in the treatment group was matched to a corresponding control patient dataset prescribed the same medication using a modified version of the Gale-Shapley algorithm. The primary analysis compared medication possession ratio, which is a measure of adherence that indicates gaps or oversupply in a patient's medication use history. Statistical tests were performed using the R statistical programming language and Microsoft Excel. Patients using pharmacies integrated within the CMHCs had higher medication adherence rates, lower rates of hospitalization, and lower ED use than those filling their prescriptions at community pharmacies. These results were associated with a cost savings of $58 per member per month (approximately $700,000 per 1,000 patients annually). Pharmacies integrated within CMHCs not only can improve medication adherence but also can reduce the need for other expensive health care services. Southwest Michigan Behavioral Health sponsored this study, which was funded by Genoa, a QoL Healthcare Company. SWMBH is a client of Care Management Technologies and permitted the use of its data for this analysis. Wright and Clayton are employed by Care Management Technologies, which was contracted by Genoa to conduct this analysis. Gorman owns Franklin Behavioral Health Consultants and reports consulting fees from Care Management Technologies; Gorman also reports stock ownership in various pharmaceutical companies. Odorzynski and Peterson are employed by Genoa. Study concept and design were contributed by Clayton, Odorzynski, Peterson, and Gorman, with assistance from Wright. Wright took the lead in data collection, with assistance from Clayton and Odorzynski, and data interpretation was performed by Wright and Gorman, with assistance from Odorzynski, Clayton, and Peterson. The manuscript was written by Gorman, Wright, and Odorzynski, assisted by Clayton and Peterson, and revised by Clayton, Gorman, Odorzynski, and Peterson.

Long-term nitrous oxide fluxes in annual and perennial agricultural and unmanaged ecosystems in the upper Midwest USA.

Differences in soil nitrous oxide (N2 O) fluxes among ecosystems are often difficult to evaluate and predict due to high spatial and temporal variabilities and few direct experimental comparisons. For 20years, we measured N2 O fluxes in 11 ecosystems in southwest Michigan USA: four annual grain crops (corn-soybean-wheat rotations) managed with conventional, no-till, reduced input, or biologically based/organic inputs; three perennial crops (alfalfa, poplar, and conifers); and four unmanaged ecosystems of different successional age including mature forest. Average N2 O emissions were higher from annual grain and N-fixing cropping systems than from nonleguminous perennial cropping systems and were low across unmanaged ecosystems. Among annual cropping systems full-rotation fluxes were indistinguishable from one another but rotation phase mattered. For example, those systems with cover crops and reduced fertilizer N emitted more N2 O during the corn and soybean phases, but during the wheat phase fluxes were ~40% lower. Likewise, no-till did not differ from conventional tillage over the entire rotation but reduced emissions ~20% in the wheat phase and increased emissions 30-80% in the corn and soybean phases. Greenhouse gas intensity for the annual crops (flux per unit yield) was lowest for soybeans produced under conventional management, while for the 11 other crop×management combinations intensities were similar to one another. Among the fertilized systems, emissions ranged from 0.30 to 1.33kgN2 O-Nha-1 yr-1 and were best predicted by IPCC Tier 1 and ΔEF emission factor approaches. Annual cumulative fluxes from perennial systems were best explained by soil NO3- pools (r2 =0.72) but not so for annual crops, where management differences overrode simple correlations. Daily soil N2 O emissions were poorly predicted by any measured variables. Overall, long-term measurements reveal lower fluxes in nonlegume perennial vegetation and, for conservatively fertilized annual crops, the overriding influence of rotation phase on annual fluxes.

High School Athletes' Parents' Perceptions and Knowledge of the Skills and Job Requirements of the Certified Athletic Trainer.

Parents play a crucial role in determining medical services for their children, and it is important they understand the scope of practice and skills of the athletic trainer (AT). To understand parents' perceptions and knowledge of the skills and job requirements of the secondary school AT. Cross-sectional study. Sport meetings and banquets at 5 high schools in southwest Michigan during the fall, winter, and spring seasons. A total of 539 parents whose children competed in at least 1 high school sport participated. A Parents' Perceptions and Knowledge of Certified Athletic Trainers Survey consisting of 32 questions, divided into 3 sections (demographics, perceptions, and knowledge), was developed and given to parents of high school athletes. One-way analyses of variance were used to determine significance among 3 categories of experience and perception and knowledge of ATs. Of the 539 parents who responded, 28% responded yes, and 72% responded no to having experience with an AT for their own injuries. When asked if they had experience with an AT due to their child's injuries, 60% responded yes. We found a difference among the 3 categories of experience for perception scores (P = .002) and knowledge scores (P < .001). In the absence of past experience with an AT, parents' perceptions and knowledge of the skills and job requirements of the secondary school AT are limited. Athletic trainers should educate parents on their professional roles, which may enhance their ability to provide better health care.

Topography Mediates the Influence of Cover Crops on Soil Nitrate Levels in Row Crop Agricultural Systems.

Supplying adequate amounts of soil N for plant growth during the growing season and across large agricultural fields is a challenge for conservational agricultural systems with cover crops. Knowledge about cover crop effects on N comes mostly from small, flat research plots and performance of cover crops across topographically diverse agricultural land is poorly understood. Our objective was to assess effects of both leguminous (red clover) and non-leguminous (winter rye) cover crops on potentially mineralizable N (PMN) and levels across a topographically diverse landscape. We studied conventional, low-input, and organic managements in corn-soybean-wheat rotation. The rotations of low-input and organic managements included rye and red clover cover crops. The managements were implemented in twenty large undulating fields in Southwest Michigan starting from 2006. The data collection and analysis were conducted during three growing seasons of 2011, 2012 and 2013. Observational micro-plots with and without cover crops were laid within each field on three contrasting topographical positions of depression, slope and summit. Soil samples were collected 4–5 times during each growing season and analyzed for and PMN. The results showed that all three managements were similar in their temporal and spatial distributions of NO3 —N. Red clover cover crop increased by 35% on depression, 20% on slope and 32% on summit positions. Rye cover crop had a significant 15% negative effect on in topographical depressions but not in slope and summit positions. The magnitude of the cover crop effects on soil mineral nitrogen across topographically diverse fields was associated with the amount of cover crop growth and residue production. The results emphasize the potential environmental and economic benefits that can be generated by implementing site-specific topography-driven cover crop management in row-crop agricultural systems.

Comparative productivity of alternative cellulosic bioenergy cropping systems in the North Central USA

Biofuels from lignocellulosic feedstocks have the potential to improve a wide range of ecosystem services while simultaneously reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Here, we report on the six-year production potential (above ground net primary production, ANPP), post-frost harvested biomass (yield), and gross harvest efficiency (GHE=yield/ANPP) of seven model bioenergy cropping systems in both southcentral Wisconsin (ARL) and southwest Michigan (KBS). The cropping systems studied were continuous corn (Zea mays L.), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), giant miscanthus (Miscanthus×giganteus Greef & Deuter ex Hodkinson & Renvoize), hybrid poplar (Populus nigra×P. maximowiczii A. Henry ‘NM6’), a native grass mixture (5 sown species), an early successional community, and a restored prairie (18 sown species). Overall the most productive cropping systems were corn>giant miscanthus>and switchgrass, which were significantly more productive than native grasses≈restored prairie≈early successional≈and hybrid poplar, although some systems (e.g. hybrid poplar) differed significantly by location. Highest total ANPP was observed in giant miscanthus (35.2±2.0Mgha−1yr−1) at KBS during the sixth growing season. Six-year cumulative biomass yield from hybrid poplar at KBS (55.4±1.3 Mgha−1) was high but significantly lower than corn and giant miscanthus (65.5±1.5, 65.2±5.5Mgha−1, respectively). Hypothesized yield advantages of diversity in perennial cropping systems were not observed during this period. Harvested biomass yields were 60, 56, and 44% of ANPP for corn, perennial grass, and restored prairie, respectively, suggesting that relatively simple changes in agronomic management (e.g. harvest timing and harvest equipment modification) may provide significant gains in bioenergy crop yields. Species composition was an important determinant of GHE in more diverse systems. Results show that well-established, dedicated bioenergy crops are capable of producing as much biomass as corn stover, but with fewer inputs.

The Effect of Container Shape on Prescription Drug Label Readability for Adults with Visual Impairments

Introduction Adults with vision loss often have difficulties reading prescription drug labels. An aspect of label readability that has not been well explored is the effect of container shape on the readability of the label. The research question addressed is: Does container shape affect the readability of prescription drug labels for persons with reduced visual acuity? Methods A repeated-measure, single-factor design with within-subject control was used with 23 adults with visual acuity of 20/60 or less. Individuals were recruited from southwest Michigan. Participants read 3 unique prescription drug labels on 4 differently shaped containers (flat, box, small cylinder, large cylinder) in block randomized order, for a total of 12 trials. The amount of time needed to locate and read aloud 6 pieces of label information and number of errors made in reading were measured, as well as each participant's preference in container shapes. Results A statistically significant difference was found between the mean number of seconds required to read flat container labels (flat and box shape, M = 54.62 seconds, SD = 23.8) and round containers (small and large cylinder shape, M = 64.46 seconds, SD = 36.3). No statistically significant effect of container type was found on the number of mistakes made in reading the label information, Wald χ2(3) = .71, p = 0.871. Seventy-eight percent of the participants chose the flat container as their preferred shape. Only 1 participant selected the box as his or her top choice. Discussion Containers with flat surfaces (flat and box) were easier to read, measured by speed, compared to containers with round surfaces (small and large cylinders). Although the study participants overwhelmingly preferred flat containers to the boxes, little difference was found between the two shapes in the amount of time that was needed to read labels affixed to them. Implications for practitioners Individuals with vision loss may need more time to read prescription drug labels affixed to the more typical cylindrical containers compared to flat ones.

Hierarchical Modeling and Parameter Estimation for a Coupled Groundwater–Lake System

In this paper, a generalized hierarchical multiscale approach for modeling coupled groundwater and surface water systems is demonstrated. Groundwater–lake interactions are simulated by coupling the groundwater equations with the lake’s continuity equation and by providing a two-way iterative feedback between models at multiple scales using specified head/flux boundary conditions. A hierarchical parameter estimation method that allows data and parameters at different scales to communicate between each other is also developed. These methods are applied to simulate a lake augmentation system for the Sister Lakes in southwest Michigan, which involves pumping a large amount of water from an irrigation well into the lakes. This problem requires resolution of time scales ranging from site-scale (hours) to local-scale (months) to watershed-scale (years) and spatial scales ranging from a few meters to a few kilometers. A hierarchical modeling framework consisting of five interlinked models was created, and model calibration was performed using drawdown data from a 72-h pumping test. The calibrated model was then used to simulate the entire lake augmentation system. The results indicate that the proposed modeling and parameter estimation approach can help improve the ability to model real-world complexities.

Natural stressors in uncontaminated sediments of shallow freshwaters: the prevalence of sulfide, ammonia, and reduced iron.

Potentially toxic levels of 3 naturally occurring chemical stressors (dissolved sulfide, ammonia, and iron) can appear in freshwater sediments, although their roles in shaping ecosystem structure (i.e., plant and animal communities) and function (e.g., biologically mediated elemental cycles) have received little study. The present critical review discusses the prevalence and ecological effects of potentially toxic concentrations of sulfide, ammonia, and iron in uncontaminated freshwater sediments, including a review of the literature as well as a case study presenting previously unpublished data on sediment porewaters from a diverse set of shallow (<2 m) freshwater ecosystems in southwest Michigan, USA. Measured concentrations are compared with surface water quality criteria established by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and with acute and chronic toxic thresholds in the published literature, where available. Based on USEPA criteria for aquatic life for these 3 stressors, the benthic environment of almost every freshwater ecosystem sampled was theoretically stressful to some component of aquatic life in some area or at some time (i.e., in at least 1 sample), and 54% of samples exceeded more than 1 criterion simultaneously. Organismal tolerances to chemical stressors vary, so the observed concentrations are likely shaping benthic animal communities and influencing rates of ecosystem processes. Consideration of the role of natural chemical stressors is important in shaping freshwater benthic environments and in developing bioassessments, restoration goals, and remediation plans. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:467-479. © 2014 SETAC.

Climate change and irrigation demand: Uncertainty and adaptation

Abstract Study region The Kalamazoo River Watershed, southwest Michigan, USA. Study focus Climate change is projected to have significant impacts on agricultural production. Therefore, understanding the regional impacts of climate change on irrigation demand for crop production is important for watershed managers and agricultural producers to understand for effective water resources management. In this study, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool was used to assess the impact of climate change on corn and soybean irrigation demand in the Kalamazoo River Watershed. Bias-corrected statistically downscaled climate change data from ten global climate models and four emissions scenarios were used in SWAT to develop projections of irrigation demand and yields for 2020–2039 and 2060–2079. Six adaptation scenarios were developed to shift the planting dates (planting earlier and later in the growing season) to take advantage of periods with greater rainfall or lower temperature increases. New hydrological insights for the region Uncertainty in irrigation demand was found to increase moving from 2020–2039 to 2060–2079, with demand generally decreasing moving further into the future for corn and soybean. A shift in timing of peak irrigation demand and increases in temperature lead to corn yield reductions. However, soybean yield increased under these conditions. Finally, the adaptation strategy of planting earlier increased irrigation demand and water available for transpiration, while delaying planting resulted in demand decreases for both crops.

Bioenergy Supply and Environmental Impacts on Cropland: Insights from Multi‐market Forecasts in a Great Lakes Subregional Bioeconomic Model

AbstractUsing subregional models of crop production choices in central Wisconsin and southwest Michigan, we predict biomass production, land use, and environmental impacts with details that are unavailable from national scale models. When biomass prices are raised exogenously, we find that the subregional models overestimate the supply, the land use, and the beneficial environmental aspects of perennial biomass crops. Multi‐market price feedbacks tied to realistic policy parameters predict high threshold absolute prices for biomass to enter production, resulting in intensified production of biomass from annual grain crops with damaging environmental impacts. Multi‐market feedbacks also predict regional specialization in energy biomass production in areas with lower yields of food crops. Policies promoting biofuels will not necessarily generate environmental benefits in the absence of environmental regulations.

In the Street, in the Classroom, and in the Psychoanalytic Institute

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Additional informationNotes on contributorsMark SmallerMark Smaller is an adult and child psychoanalyst practicing in Chicago and Southwest Michigan. He is president of the American Psychoanalytic Association. He is Founding Executive Director of Project Realize, an in-school treatment and research project at Morton Alternative High School in Cicero, Illinois. Dr. Smaller has lectured and written extensively on psychoanalysis in the community.

Impact of Cluster Thinning and Basal Leaf Removal on Fruit Quality of Cabernet Franc (Vitis vinifera L.) Grapevines Grown in Cool Climate Conditions

Achieving desired fruit quality at harvest in cool climate conditions is a challenge, especially for red varieties, and the typical inability of fruit to reach technological maturity is a critical contributing factor requiring examination. To probe this issue, this research investigated the impact of two levels of crop thinning and of basal leaf removal at three phenological stages in the 2011 and 2012 growing seasons in Michigan. Experiments were conducted at the Southwest Michigan Research and Extension Center (SWMREC) in Benton Harbor. Using ‘Cabernet franc’ (Vitis vinifera L.) vines, yield components (yield per vine, pruning weight, and cluster and berry weight) and basic fruit composition traits [total soluble solids (TSS), pH, titratable acidity, anthocyanins, and phenolics) were studied to investigate the effect of cluster thinning and basal leaf removal on vine performance and fruit quality at harvest. Neither of the treatments significantly impacted TSS in either of the two seasons. Cluster thinning treatment successfully altered cropload ratio, indexed as Ravaz Index (RI), independently of the time of application. Basal leaf removal increased exposed berry temperature, cluster light exposure, and subsequent anthocyanin and phenolic content of the berry in both seasons, again independent of application date, whereas cluster thinning was effective only in 2012. Crop thinning coupled with basal leaf removal resulted in an increased efficiency in anthocyanin accumulation in relation to TSS accumulation, expressed as anthocyanin:sugar, in both years. This is significant because it offers potential for vineyard management practices aiming to improve fruit quality in cool climates where the onset of anthocyanin accumulation could be reduced and decoupled from sugar accumulation.

Bees of the genera &lt;i&gt;Dufourea&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;Dieunomia&lt;/i&gt; of Michigan (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Halictidae), with a key to the &lt;i&gt;Dufourea&lt;/i&gt; of the eastern United States

The halictid bees of the genera Dufourea Lepeletier de Saint Fargeau (Rophitinae) and Dieunomia Cockerell (Nomiinae) occurring in Michigan are reviewed. Two new records for Michigan are provided: Dufourea harveyi (Cockerell), new status, and Dieunomia heteropoda (Say). This is also the first published record of D. harveyi in the eastern United States. The occurrence of Dieunomia in southwest Michigan is the first record of the subfamily Nomiinae for the state. Information on the biology and distribution of each species is summarized. An identification key to the Dufourea of the eastern United States is provided.

The Wall Between Church and State Begins to Crumble

A small community in southwest Michigan has been witness to a significant cultural divide within its school system. An influential church has permeated school leadership and in many cases has overstepped the proverbial “wall separating church and state.” A fairly high-profile case saw the Sixth Circuit Court enjoin the district to remove a portrait of Jesus. Community members were divided on this issue, which led to mistrust between the two factions. The culture that was established caused a certain sectarian group to intensify their mission of disseminating their church doctrine throughout the community with the school as a vehicle for that message. The secular constituents were highly suspicious that their First Amendment rights were being infringed upon by the activities of secularists inside and outside the school. A contingent of school employees fostered the church’s mission with several members ignoring the wall of separation. The high school principal energized the debate when he elected to use the halftime of a sporting event to recognize the resigning athletic director by quoting scripture. Many were aghast that he would be so bold as to speak in such a manner, whereas others were euphoric that religion was infused in the public school. This case provides a practical examination of First Amendment practices in the public school and the opportunity to assess decision making through various organizational and ethical lenses.

Assessing Suitability of Nontraditional Development in Roadside Right-of-Way

A decision framework was developed for context-sensitive planning in the roadside right-of-way (ROW). The primary component of this framework was a roadside suitability assessment model that supported decisions related to ROW use and development, particularly those that were nontraditional in nature. The model accommodated a broad range of potential types of development while a diverse range of roadside contextual features, including land use (current and future), land cover, environment, natural resources, and plant and animal habitats was considered. The primary function of the model was to identify the areas along a highway corridor that were most (or least) suitable for development in the roadside ROW. After the model parameters were calibrated to satisfy local conditions, a roadside suitability index was computed for each area along the selected corridor with available geospatial data as the primary model inputs. The roadside suitability index provided a relative indication of the overall suitability for a particular development in the roadside ROW. The model was demonstrated with a 20-mile pilot section of I-94 in southwest Michigan. Four types of nontraditional ROW development were considered for implementation along the corridor, including solar panels, wind turbines, agriculture and farming, and green infrastructure (e.g., stream or wetland mitigation). The resultant roadside suitability scores for the pilot corridor generally were consistent with standard considerations for planning land use.

Improving Infant and Maternal Health through CenteringPregnancy: A Comparison of Maternal Health Indicators and Infant Outcomes between Women Receiving Group versus Traditional Prenatal Care

Background: Despite efforts to increase participation in prenatal care, outcomes for women and infants in the United States remain below global and national health targets. CenteringPregnancy, a model of group prenatal care, incorporates practices consistent with national and international guidelines while allowing for greater freedom in providing content tailored to the specific needs of women receiving care. Objective: To determine whether the CenteringPregnancy model improves maternal and neonatal health indicators such as prenatal care attendance, smoking cessation, weight gain during pregnancy, gestational age at delivery, mode of delivery, and initiation and continuation of breastfeeding. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted including all pregnant women participating in CenteringPregnancy at two prenatal clinic sites in southwest Michigan from January 2010 to April 2012 (n = 173). A comparison group of women receiving traditional care from certified nurse-midwives was created using propensity scores to match for age, race, and insurance status (n = 170). A chart review was performed to analyze maternal and neonatal health indicators including attendance at prenatal visits, gestational age at delivery, baseline maternal weight and weight gain during pregnancy, smoking cessation, infant birth weight, mode of delivery (vaginal birth vs. cesarean section), and rates of breastfeeding. Results: There were no significant differences in pre-pregnancy weight, amount of weight gained during pregnancy, prenatal care attendance, gestational age at delivery, mode of delivery or infant birth weight. The CenteringPregnancy group had significantly higher rates of smoking cessation during pregnancy, as well as higher rates of breastfeeding initiation and continuation. Conclusions: This study provides support for the benefits of CenteringPregnancy in improving rates of smoking cessation during pregnancy which is important to both maternal and infant health. Additionally, in this population CenteringPregnancy resulted in improved rates of breastfeeding initiation and continuation, providing benefits to both infants and mothers.

Determining the Diffusivity of Nitrous Oxide in Soil using In Situ Tracers

Diffusion is a key process for understanding the movement of nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), oxygen (O2), and other biogeochemically important gases in soil. Soil gas diffusivity is highly variable, which makes the application of generic predictive models based on soil macrofeatures uncertain. In situ methods provide greater certainty but intensive sampling usually makes such determinations expensive. We compared single and inter-port diffusivity determinations using a sparse sampling alternative. We used 28 in situ profile probes with ports at five depths for pulse sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and N2O tracer injections at single ports followed by two or three measurements in five adjacent ports at an agricultural site in southwest Michigan, USA. We repeated this procedure for three dates in the summer and two in the fall. In general, the sparse method provided accurate measurements of soil diffusivity. Estimated diffusivities of SF6 and N2O had poorer agreement in the summer (r2 = 0.49) than in the fall (r2 = 0.96), likely due to less uniform soil moisture in summer. The low N2O to SF6 diffusivity ratio (0.67 compared with 1.82 in free air) suggests that water solubility of N2O plays a significant role in retarding its movement in the soil. Movement of the relatively insoluble SF6 is not obscured by dissolution in water making SF6 a superior tracer compared with N2O. Median diffusivities in ports where the gas was injected were only moderately correlated (r2 = 0.45) with diffusivities at the same depth measured by the inter-port method, likely due to an increase in the variability of diffusivity with distance from the injection port. Results show it is possible to estimate N2O diffusivity with sparse measurements; accuracy can likely be further improved with knowledge of soil moisture and texture in the immediate vicinity of the injection and sampling ports, as uncertainty in water modeling is reduced.

Spatial and Temporal Study of Climatic Variability on Grape Production in Southwestern Michigan

Daily climatic data were obtained from several sources to calculate growing degree days (GDD) for multiple sites in southwest Michigan, which contains the Lake Michigan Shore American Viticultural Area. The data were examined for spatial and temporal (1950 to 2011) patterns and trends over the region in order to better quantify the role of Michigan climate on juice grape production. The occurrence and severity of frost and freezing temperatures were also considered in this study, as subfreezing temperatures in late spring and early fall can have severe impacts on the region’s juice grape production and fruit quality at harvest. Michigan’s cool-cold climate has warmed in recent decades, particularly since 1980, with an average increase over the region of more than 3.7 GDD (base 10°C) per year. Southwestern Michigan was also found to have higher seasonal temperature variability when compared with Napa Valley (California). Since 1980, the season-to-season variability in Michigan has increased at a more rapid pace. The impacts of the increasing GDD have been positive for fruit quality, with a strong positive correlation between seasonal GDD and fruit maturation, indexed as total soluble solids (Brix). The growing season has also increased by 28 days in length since 1971. However, despite warmer temperatures, the number of days of potential frost and their seasonal variability in southwestern Michigan have remain unchanged, which continues to pose a risk for grapegrowers in the region. While it has become warmer in Michigan, and the spring warm-up is typically arriving earlier in the year, the number of days with damaging frost still has a profound impact on overall climate-related risk for grape production.

Intra‐Aggregate Pore Structures and Escherichia coli Distribution by Water Flow within and Movement Out of Soil Macroaggregates

Soil aggregates are an important structural component of the soil matrix that could harbor Escherichia coli and provide an environment for its survival and water flow reentering. Knowledge of the exact pore locations within soil aggregates obtained using X‐ray computed microtomography opens new opportunities for understanding microorganism movement within the soil matrix. The first objective of this study was to assess E. coli spatial distribution within soil macroaggregates and its potential for leaving the aggregates with the saturated water flow. The second objective was to study the relationships between the distribution and movement of E. coli within soil aggregates and the aggregates' internal pore structures. We studied aggregates from the top (A) horizon of conventionally tilled (CT) and no‐till (NT) corn–soybean–wheat rotations and native succession vegetation (NS) treatments at NSF Long‐Term Ecological Research site, southwest Michigan. The results confirmed that E. coli movement in soil aggregates was mainly driven by water flow via capillary forces. E. coli redistribution was most pronounced in CT aggregates, followed by NT, and was almost negligible in NS aggregates. Pore characteristics that positively contributed to E. coli redistribution through the aggregates were the maximum flow in the aggregate centers and the ratio of the maximum flow and pore tortuosity. The E. coli retention in the aggregate's centers was positively related to porosity, percent of medium and large pores, and pore tortuosity.

Models of Social Change: Community Foundations and Agenda Setting

Keywords: Community foundations, social change, agenda setting, college accessModels of Social Change: Community Foundations and Agenda SettingIn the spring of 2005, Janice Brown, former superintendent of public schools in Kalamazoo, announced a simple promise to the students and parents of her district: If you attend Kalamazoo Public Schools (KPS) and earn your high school diploma, the community will pay for your tuition and fees to attend any public two-or four-year institution in the state.Two factors make the Promise simple and easy to understand. First, there are few conditions for eligibility. The award is scaled to the amount of time students attend KPS; a student must attend all four years of high school in the district to be eligible. Beyond that, a student is simply required to gain admission to a college and remain enrolled. The feature of the program few have been able to replicate is to offer the promise as the dollar of aid that students receive. Simply put, KPS students are not required to qualify for other forms of financial aid - they do not even have to apply for federal student aid, as required by many other promise-type programs (Miller-Adams, 2008).In the blink of an eye, the Kalamazoo Promise took the national spotlight as a model for community-based social change. Within the first few years of the program, community leaders from across the country flocked to observe firsthand how this midsized, Midwestern, Rust Belt town transformed itself from a declining 20th-century industrial city to a 21st-century magnet for economic growth in the new knowledge economy. Today hundreds of cities across the country have given the Promise serious consideration and more than a dozen have begun crafting their own versions. All have come to recognize two facts that community leaders in southwest Michigan under stood from the beginning of the Promise: It takes a long time to develop the agenda and it takes even longer to achieve long-term and sustainable success.In this article, we examine alternative models for understanding how social change is facilitated. We focus our attention on a particular approach to large-scale, community-based educational change - Local College Access Networks (LCAN) in the state of Michigan - to answer two key questions: What factors serve to shape the social change agenda? How can community foundations serve to promote and advance the agenda? We examine these questions in the context of educational change within local communities, but the lessons are equally important for broader social change initiatives. The reader will note that we have taken great care to avoid using collective or common or shared to describe the agenda-setting process. In many ways these terms are synonyms. Currently, however, they connote particular approaches to structuring and understanding social change. In the case that we use any of these modifiers, we do so only in the most general sense of their meaning.We argue that agenda setting is perhaps the most important aspect of the social change process and that the agenda evolves slowly. The Harlem Children's Zone (HCZ), for example, has risen to great prominence among the education community; the U.S. Department of Education launched the Promise Neighborhood grant initiative to encourage other communities to engage in a similar transformation. We see the success of Geoffrey Canada today and we are tempted to believe that it has always been a model community-based education reform - when other community reformers consider HCZ, they only see the 99 city blocks of education reform and not the 20 years of slow and gradual improvement that preceded it. It may be an understatement to highlight that significant social change takes a great deal of time and cannot be replicated as easily as observers might hope.It is also important to recognize that there is no one, unitary agenda. At some level, every individual and every organization has an agenda or a set of priorities or programmatic preferences. …