Southern Republics Research Articles

Editor's Introduction

Like so much of the recent social science literature, Soviet discussions of migration processes provide abundant evidence of the serious problems confronting Soviet society. The lead article in our current issue, by L. L. Rybakovskii and N. V. Tarasova ("Migration Processes in the USSR: New Phenomena") focuses on two particularly troubling aspects of recent population movements. The first of these concerns the markedly differing quality of population outflows and inflows in recent years. The authors characterize the outflow as a "brain drain" since it includes substantial numbers of skilled technical personnel and representatives of the creative intelligentsia (the article provides data on the ethnic groups involved and the countries to which they have emigrated). The population inflow, on the other hand, although obviously quite small, has included mainly unskilled laborers from Vietnam and North Korea. Such international migration flows have clearly contributed to "a deterioration in the labor potential of the country." The other problem discussed in some detail by the authors concerns the connection between domestic migration processes and the recent rise in interethnic tensions—what the authors characterize as "the problem of [domestic—M.Y.] refugees." This involves not only involuntary population movements associated with open and sometimes bloody groups conflicts (among, for example, Armenians and Azerbaidzhanians), but also the ouflow of Slavic nationalities from the country's southern republics, a process that the authors anticipate will soon characterize the Baltic republics. Soviet migration processes in many of the republics are now affected by the latter's attempts to move toward a "monoethnic population." This article is particularly valuable for its abundant empirical documentation.

Corruption, development and inequality: soft touch or hard graft?

1. Corruption, Inequality and Change Michael Johnston 2. Drugs and Economic Development in Latin America: a Study in the Political Economy of Cocaine in Bolivia Colin Sage 3. Second Economy Activities in the USSR: Insights from the Southern Republics Yochanan Altman 4. Politics and Graft: Recruitment, Appointments and Promotions to Public Office in Southern India Robert Wade 5. Corruption!..What Corruption? Notes on Bribery and Dependency in Urban India Hans Schenk 6. The Distribution of Consequences of Nepotism and Patron-Clientelism: the Case of Cuenca, Ecuador Stella Lowder 7. Local Leadership and the Distributional Benefits Wrought by Illegality in Third World Community Development Peter Ward 8. Settlement, Illegality and Legalisation: the Need for Reassessment Ann Varley.

Literature and Society: Madame de Stael and the Argentine Romantics

The study of Latin-American literature in its romantic age must include recognition of a fundamental debt to European letters of the same period. The new Southern republics that came into existence between 1810 and 1824 were inheritors of a wide-reaching revolutionary spirit that rose in North America in 1776, consumed France in 1789 and engulfed Spain in 1808. The beginnings of their political life took root in an intellectual climate that exalted freedom, liberalism and progress, social characteristics held dear at one time or another by European romantics. And it was that intellectual climate itself that dictated an activist tone for Latin American romanticism in the

A Band of Prophets: The Vanderbilt Agrarians After Fifty Years.

The South of the Agrarians / Charles P. Roland -- For Dixieland / John Shelto Reed -- The southern republic of letters and I'll take my stand / Lewis P. Simpson -- Spokesman and seer / Robert B. Heilman -- Agrarianism, criticism, and the academy / George Core -- I'll take my stand / Louis D. Rubin, Jr. -- The Agrarian-industrial metaphor / Lyle Lanier ... [et al.].

The ecology of chigger-borne rickettsiosis (scrub typhus).

A critical review of the ecology of chigger-borne rickettsiosis (scrub typhus) is presented, based upon a synthesis of both published and unpublished information. All the epidemiological characteristics of chigger-borne typhus are attributable to the habits and other features of the vector chiggers. This rickettsiosis is found in a remarkably broad range of habitats, presumably in all areas where members of the Leptotrombidium deliense -group of chiggers and wild rats of the genus Rattus coexist, ranging from semideserts to alpine reaches in the mountains, and from sandy beaches to dense but disturbed forest. The habitats are characterized by the presence of changing ecological conditions, wrought by man or nature, and expressed by transitional types of vegetation, even if these are in circumscribed foci as along jungle streams. The intimate association between the rats, chiggers and secondary vegetation (which together with Rickettsia tsutsugamushi , the etiological agent, constitute the “zoonotic tetrad”) is an ancient one. We postulate that as Rattus and associated chiggers of the subgenus Leptotrombidium penetrated new areas and habitats, they diversified, and as the chiggers adapted to other hosts in the new regions, such mammals became secondarily involved in the ecology of the rickettsiosis. Chiggers in the L. deliense -group constitute the major vectors of this disease, and we consider that they also serve as the primary reservoir of the infection in nature, perpetuating the cycle by transovarian transmission of the rickettsiae from the naturally infected female mite to the next generation. While chiggers can acquire rickettsiae from a rodent host by feeding, laboratory data suggest that only rarely can this result in infection in another mammal, whether by a chigger that has become infected while feeding and then reattaching to a second host (which is unusual in itself) or by transovarially infected progeny. However, while such an event may be difficult to demonstrate in the laboratory, the same low percentage of success in the field would be significant in the natural cycle because of the vast numbers of chiggers involved, and because of the amplification that would ensue by transovarian transmissionof acquired infection over a period of generations. Small mammals (“theraphions”) like rats, voles, and tree-shrews which are primarily ground-dwelling are important in the ecologyof the rickettsiosis by serving as major hosts of the vector chiggers. Arboreal rodents and commensal rats play little role in the infection, apparently because they seldom come in contact with ground infested with the L. deliense -group. Rickettsia tsutsugamushi differs significantly from other members of the genus, and the similarities between them apparently represent convergence towards existence as intracellular parasites with cycles in both mammals and arthropods. The so-called serotypes of the agent, in contrast, are quite divergent. The widespread range of certain serotypes, and the fact that they may be transmitted by several species of chiggers suggest that infection acquired from theraphions may be significant in the ecology of the rickettsiosis. By using chiggers of the L. deliense -complex and wild rats as indicators of the presence of this infection, “oasis chigger-borne rickettsiosis” has been demonstrated among relict faunae in “ecological islands.” Such faunal data indicate that the infection may be present in areas where it has not yet been demonstrated, as in northern Iran and some southern republics of the U.S.S.R., parts of Tibet, Sinkiang, etc.

The ecology, bionomics and behaviour of Haemaphysalis (Haemaphysalis) concinna tick.

Haemaphysalis (Haemaphysalis) concinna tick is widely distributed species in the forests of temperate Eurasia. Its distribution in temperate zone is confined to the deciduous and mixed forests to the relatively humid places, lake coasts and river basins. It is known from France, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Roumania and Balkan Peninsula, southern republics of the USSR.

Haemaphysalis (Allophysalis) pospelovashtromae sp. n. from USSR and Redescription of the Type Material of H. (A.) warburtoni Nuttall from China (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae)

The male and female type material of Haemaphysalis (Allophysalis) warburtoni Nuttall, from a serow in Szechwan, China, is redescribed and males of this species are reported from a Himalayan thar in Uttar Pradesh, India. Both hosts are mountain-inhabiting members of the Order Artiodactyla (Bovidae, Caprinae). The single specimen reported as H. warburtoni from Formosa (Taiwan) is found to represent H. (H.) formosensis Neumann. The hosts, biology, life cycle, and disease relationships of H. (A.) warburtoni have been the subject of numerous Soviet reports; many (if not all) of these refer actually to H. (A.) pospelovashtromae sp. n., which is described from males, females, nymphs, and larvae. Adults of the newly recognized species parasitize cattle and domestic and wild goats in the mountains of southern RSFSR and southern republics of USSR. Haemaphysalis warburtoni Nuttall (1912) was sketchily described and illustrated from a single collection removed in England from a serow or goat antelope originating in Szechwan, China. No other samples are known from China. Over the years, a number of papers concerning scattered, high-altitude populations of ticks attributed to H. warburtoni from Mongolia, RSFSR, and southern republics of the USSR have provided a rather large amount of interesting information on hosts, life cycle, ecology, and disease relationships of this taxon. From published information, it has appeared that H. warburtoni is a uniform species with an extensive, discontinuous, relict-type distribution pattern ranging from Taiwan, China, and Mongolia in the east to Georgia SSR in the southwest. Recently we have been fortunate to be able to study the type material of H. warburtoni in the British Museum (Natural History), the single specimen attributed to this species from Taiwan, one collection from the Himalayas, and several excellent samples from USSR. It is now apparent that the specimen reported Received for publication 14 March 1966. *From Research Project MR005.09-1402.3, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Department of the Navy, Washington, D. C. The opinions and assertions contained herein are the private ones of the author and are not to be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Department of the Navy or of the naval service at large. from Taiwan was misidentified and that all available samples from USSR differ from the Chinese type material of H. warburtoni in a number of critical features. Lack of immature stage samples of certain species and convergent adaptation among adults of structurally primitive species that have evolved from different branches more or less closely related to H. warburtoni cause confusing systematic problems at the subgeneric level, which is intended to express phylogenetic relationships. These are discussed below. Haemaphysalis (Allophysalis) warburtoni Nuttall Warburton's Chinese Serow Haemaphysalid

Samuel Guy Inman and Intervention in Mexico

To the average American in the first quarter of the twentieth century, Latin America represented a backward land under the paternalistic protection of Uncle Sam; and to the American businessman the southern republics offered opportunities for investment and huge profits. Thus, in 1 91 o, when Mexico, the nearest republic and the most profitable one for American investment, began to boil with a social revolution, tension between the two governments increased to the point of war, or as the Americans termed it, intervention. Although both governments share the credit for averting war, the contribution of liberals on both sides of the border towards the amicable settlement of the disputes deserves greater recognition. Little is known of the many Americans, individuals and groups, who so articulately opposed intervention and presented the Mexican side of the dispute. Among them were the Protestant churches in the United States and their

A Survey of Elementary and Secondary Education in Latin America

Latin-American education today bears more resemblance to its ineffective past than to the great and good plans which its educators have regularly got incorporated into law. For two generations all the southern republics have passed constitutional provisions guaranteeing free and compulsory education. Haiti has carried such a provision in its legal code since 1871, yet today 92 per cent of its people are illiterate.The percentage figure ranges somewhat lower for the other countries, but the basic situation remains the same. As H. W. Spiegel reported in The Brazilian Economy: “At present no more than one-third of Brazil's child population attends school. Schools, including the elementary, are overcrowded. Teachers are scarce. Education opportunities for higher training are poor and expensive. During 1940 to 1944, seventyeight per cent of the immigrants were literate; in 1940 only thirty-two per cent of the native Brazilians were literate.”

The Essays of Romulo Gallegos

Romulo Gallegos, still constitutional President of the Republic of Venezuela, is also perhaps the most famous novelist writing in the Spanish language today. This distinction achieved in both literature and politics, so characteristic of Latin American civilization, marks him as one of the outstanding men in our hemisphere. Since 1948 Gallegos has lived in exile from his native Venezuela, displaced from the presidency of his country by one of those typical military coups which have plagued the Southern Republics throughout their period of independence. During several months of these years of exile he lived in the home of Professor Lowell

Education in Latin America

R ARELY has the power of a book been so clearly illustrated as by the influence of Jose Enrique Rod6's Ariel on the minds of leading intellectuals in the Latin American republics for nearly two generations. Even more than fear of Yankee economic exploitation and dollar diplomacy, Rod6's criticism of North American culture and his plea to Latin American intellectuals to preserve and maintain their own spiritual and cultural values developed misunderstandings between the two parts of the Western Hemisphere, which have only recently begun to be removed. There is a profound lesson in this story, as much for relations within a nation as between nations. Prejudices arise and become so deep-rooted that they become obstacles even to the attempt to understand our neighbors. Rod6 never visited the United States, and he wrote Ariel on the basis of rumors, hearsay, and bias. It is only as intercourse between the Northern and Southern republics has increased that the old prejudices are gradually beginning to be dissipated. Nor have we in the United States been guiltless. There has been too much of a tendency to perpetuate labels, to emphasize the characteristic differences between the North and South Americans, and to ignore those common elements of personality which alone can supply the bases for understanding between neighbors at home or abroad. The attitude, in personal as in national relations, was tersely summarized in a musical comedy, The Belle of New York, in the following stanza:

Latin American Foreign Trade Characteristics

BECAUSE of the shock of the wars which for the past year have been spreading over sections of Europe and the Orient, any analysis of Latin American trade characteristics is subject to those unknown factors which result from the artificially produced economic happenings arising from armed struggles on a large scale. Previous to the autumn of 1939 it would have been possible to comment convincingly on existing conditions and probable trends. United States exports to Latin America in the six-months period September 1939 to February 1940 were 54 per cent greater than in the same period a year previous, and imports from Latin America were 32 per cent greater, according to the latest available official figures. The United States exports to all countries increased only 33 per cent and imports 27 per cent for the six-months period ended February 1940. It is doubtful that the recent rate of increase in exports to Latin America can long be maintained, unless Latin America obtains more adequate means of paying for United States purchases than it now possesses. Here, then, we have the first marked characteristic of the current Latin American foreign trade problem-the lack of dollar exchange. Since the greater part of the foreign trade of the southern republics must become inter-American commerce to an ever increasing extent, at least for the duration of the existing wars and probably for some time after peace has been restored, the most pressing question concerning the foreign trade of the South and Central American countries has to do with the creation of new purchasing power. How can this best be accomplished? The answer

The Competitive Situation in South American Trade

T HE acute South American aspects of the present world-wide depression have raised in the minds of American exporters a number of anxious queries regarding the status of our European and other competitors in the southern markets. Doubts are being expressed as to our ability to retain those parts of British trade which we took over during the war. Fears are entertained as to Germany's recuperation in that region, and as to the intrusion of such newcomers as Japan, the Scandinavian countries, and even the larger Latin American republics which have begun to exploit each other's markets at a modest but steadily increasing rate. As a climax to the whole situation the premium on the dollar in each of the more important southern capitals has persisted at abnormally high figures, thus giving to European exporters an advantage which those in certain lines, such as ribbons, wire, and galvanized iron, have been recently capitalizing in considerable amounts. The problem of appraising the competitive possibilities of our more important rivals in South American trade involves of course a review of their commerce with that continent in the recent past as a partial basis for an identification of their fields of special interest and of our incursions into their markets. One other important factor which is being all too frequently ignored by many American exporters, is the transformation which the war has wrought in the import requirements of the southern markets. In spite of the radical economic changes in Europe and the United States since I9I4, many of the northern exporters from both sides of the Atlantic are returning to their South American markets with the expectation of finding buying conditions there very much as they were in I9I3. This assumption ignores entirely the present widespread determination in practically all of the South American countries to make permanent a considerable portion of their new war-born industries. Ample evidence of this intention can be found in the shape of readjusted protective tariff programs, corporation and income tax inducements, and active preparations for the exploitation of hitherto untouched hydroelectric power projects and petroleum fields. The effects of these new developments upon the commercial situation are already apparent, as will be indicated below; their most significant bearing is upon the relative standing of the various competitors who are now trying to secure or to retain footholds in those markets. That standing will be determined very largely by the agility and resourcefulness displayed by the rival merchants in anticipating and meeting these fundamental industrial changes in South America. Great Britain is obviously the most formidable of our competitors and the effects of any actual or potential industrial transformations in the southern republics upon her trade are therefore significant. The recent history of her important coal trade with Chile illustrates this point. The changing of the nitrate industry from a coal-burning to a petroleum-burning basis during the past six years has greatly reduced and will ultimately practically eliminate the importation into Chile of the commodity which had for many years before the war made up not less than 30 per cent and frequently more than 40 per cent of Britain's total exports to that country. Table I shows the decline of Chilean coal imports since I9I3 and the acquisition of a part of the British trade by the United States. The curtailment of

The A.B.C. Mediation

How to regulate social, political and commercial intercourse between the people and Government of the United States and the peoples and governments of the other republics on the American continent so as to establish and maintain perfect cordiality and mutual confidence and respect, is a problem which has never been satisfactorily solved.In considering this question, which is often to the front and some times discussed with acerbity, certain disagreeable facts must be faced. In the process of understanding it American vanity will be hurt, but that is no reason for avoiding the effort to do so. There is abundant reason for believing that Americans are not popular in Mexico and other Latin-American countries. It is not the purpose of the writer in this brief essay to undertake to show why this is so. Suffice it to say that the people of the United States are viewed with suspicion, and this doubt of them and their purposes has militated against the development of American trade in the southern republics, and is a cause of irritation which ought to be cured. Diplomatic friendship has existed and does exist, but that is a relationship which can always be counted on until an open breach is imminent. Less than thirty days before the outbreak of the greatest war in all history there was an assumed—a diplomatic— cordiality between the monarchs of Russia, England, Germany and Austria. There is no danger of a cataclysm in America such as is deluging Europe with blood; but that unparalleled disaster shows that something more than formal friendships, something far more than diplomatic amenities, is desirable in the intercourse of nations.