Southern African Development Community Research Articles

Southern African Development Community application of Collective Security Against Al Sunnah Terrorists in Mozambique (2015 - 2021)

Beginning on October 5, 2017, Al Sunnah militants in the Cabo Delgado region of Mozambique violently attacked security personnel, governmental buildings, and the civilian public and by 2020 the terrorists had killed more than 3,000 people and driven almost 800,000 people from their homes. The terrorists were also starting to spill over into neighboring nations creating a regional security threat. The Mozambique security forces reacted to the situation without success as the reaction force was underequipped and lacked the necessary skills. As the situation further worsened, Mozambique requested the Southern African Development Community for assistance on the basis of the group’s collective security provisions. This culminated in the deployment of the SADC Mission in Mozambique (SAMIM). This study aims at evaluating the collective defense capacity-building initiatives adopted by SADC to assist Mozambique. The study uses a qualitative approach with data gathered through document analysis and interviews of 15 purposely selected informants comprised of military officers directly involved in the conflict, academics and key politicians. Collective security initiatives adopted by SADC include diplomatic involvement, training, offensive military operations, the provision of military gear, guidance, funding, consulting services, and intelligence services. The outcomes show that, despite certain difficulties, the collective initiatives by SADC member states were sufficient to achieve the desired end state of neutralizing the Al Sunnah terrorists and restoring peace and security to Cabo Delgado Province.

Understanding the Challenge of Cybersecurity in Africa: A Holistic Analysis of Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Foundation for Future Research

Abstract The continuous shift towards a world relying on computing leads to an increase of the potential risk factors that users face while roaming the digital world. The constant technological innovation we are witnessing creates the necessity of developing reliable systems, strategies, and frameworks against nefarious users threatening the security of information and data. Emerging countries begin to face issues related to cyber warfare and security. This study provides insight into the technological risk factors that could potentially delay further development in the technological growth of developing nations, focusing on selected countries in the African continent. The threats against confidentiality, integrity, and availability do not have an impact exclusively on information systems but, to a larger scale, on a region’s efforts for innovation. This paper intends to provide the readers a holistic review of the status of cyber security in the context of developing countries, specifically in the African continent and the Southern African Development Community.

Financing Disaster Risk Reduction: Exploring the Opportunities, Challenges, and Threats Within the Southern African Development Community Region

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, a regional economic body comprised of 16 member states, is one of our planet’s most vulnerable regions to natural hazards, and has a complex disaster risk profile. The region has sustained several disasters over the past decades. These events include annual floods in 2004–2019 and extreme droughts (1990–1993); other climate-induced disasters, such as cyclones, also have had devastating impacts, particularly on the Indian Ocean island states and east coast countries. To reduce the risk and impacts of disasters, governments must invest in disaster risk reduction (DRR). However, interventions aimed at reducing social and economic vulnerability and investing in long-term mitigation activities are often few, poorly funded, and insignificant in comparison with money spent on humanitarian assistance, disaster relief, and post-disaster reconstruction. This study investigated whether DRR is adequately funded within SADC member states in light of the high stakes in human life, infrastructure, and economic losses and the potential savings involved. The study applied a qualitative research design with data collected through semistructured interviews and focus group discussions. Respondents were selected purposefully and through snowball sampling with a total of 67 respondents from Botswana, Eswatini, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe participating in the study. The study findings reveal that DRR is inadequately funded in all the member states consulted in comparison to funding allocated to disaster response. In light of the underfunding experienced by DRR activities, this study provides a platform for lobbying and advocacy for adequate funding for DRR.

Democratic Peace and Liberal Peace: Argumentative and Intentions


 Some people believe that the concept of liberal peace should be seen in relation to the thesis of democratic peace. This literature focused more on whether democratic countries are more peaceful in their foreign relations and tried to provide a theoretical and empirical explanation for this. The democratic peace thesis states the following: 1) Democratic states rarely fight each other. 2) Democratic countries tend to be more open to international trade than non-democratic ones, which creates interdependencies that prevent war from breaking out between them.3) Democracies tend to be more internally peaceful than other systems. Here, it is important to point out that the thesis of democratic peace is closely related to Immanuel Kant’s idea of “perpetual peace”. As for the liberal peace thesis, from Richmond’s point of view, it bears four main aspects that emerged from the discussions in international theory and the different historical contexts related to the subject, especially in the West. These include the four aspects of liberal peace (victorious peace, constitutional peace, institutional peace, and civil peace). Richmond noted that the peace of the victor is the result of the old realist argument that peace depends on military victory and on the domination of the victor. But the peace of the victor may result in political resistance, as in Iraq and Afghanistan. The second, constitutional peace, derives from the Kantian argument that peace is the result of democracy, commerce, and a set of universal values based on individualism. Richmond notes that "the constitutional peace struggles with those who do not want to share power, and who do not want to entrench local legal structures that might prohibit their activities." As for institutional peace, it is the peace that results from normative and legal institutional arrangements between countries that agree - in a multilateral manner - on ways to act and impose or define their behavior. This can be found in international institutions such as the United Nations as well as regional organizations such as the European Union, the African Union (AU), the League of Arab States (AL), the Organization of American States (OAS), and subregional organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The fourth aspect, (civil peace), which emphasizes the importance of the participation of citizens and civil society institutions in making peace. Unlike the other three aspects of liberal peace, the contribution of individuals rather than the state or international organization is included in this strategy.
 

Business cycle synchronization and African monetary union: A wavelet analysis

In this paper, we analyze the feasibility of an African monetary union based on the necessary condition of business cycle synchronization. In this regard, we examine the synchronization of growth cycles between five Regional Economic Communities (RECs) that will have to merge to form an African monetary union: the East African Community; the Economic Community of Central African States; the Economic Community of West African States; the Southern African Development Community; and the Arab Maghreb Union. To do this, we use a new continuous wavelet approach. Results show evidence of heterogeneous synchronization across time and horizons between the RECs. Controlling for the influence of some countries' membership in several RECs at the same time, the synchronization landscape does not improve. Overall, our results suggest that business cycle synchronization across the RECs has not yet reached a sufficient level to allow African countries to benefit from a common monetary policy.

Examining the Effect of Government Expenditure, Urbanization and Green Finance on Carbon Emission: New Insight from the Southern African Development Community

Examining the Effect of Government Expenditure, Urbanization and Green Finance on Carbon Emission: New Insight from the Southern African Development Community

Best practices in the African Medicines Regulatory Harmonization initiative: Perspectives of regulators and medicines manufacturers.

In the African Medicines Regulatory Harmonization initiative, national regulatory authorities (NRAs) within each of Africa's regional economic communities coordinate their activities, rely on the work of one another and other trusted regulatory authorities, and apply other principles of smart regulation. The first regional medicines regulatory harmonization (MRH) initiative in Africa was launched in 2012, with the goal of accelerating access to quality, safe, effective medical products, and now five MRH initiatives are active on the continent. Thus, a wealth of knowledge regarding best practices and approaches to dealing with common challenges has accumulated. The goal of this qualitative study was to gather and share information on these best practices. To do this, we conducted interviews with key participants from four regional MRH initiatives-the East African Community (EAC), Southern African Development Community (SADC), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)-as well as representatives from the pharmaceutical industry. Here we explore major themes that emerged from the interviews: 1. Transparency and reliability are critical; 2. Reliance is essential for smart regulation; 3. Multiple successful strategies for NRA capacity building have been identified; 4. Communication between heads of agencies is essential; 5. Cooperation at the regional level is not possible without leadership at the NRA level; 6. Sustainable funding remains challenging; and 7. Industry has important insights. We hope that the information on best practices shared in this article can benefit regional MRH initiatives inside and outside of Africa, ultimately helping them accelerate access to quality, safe, effective medical products.

Situation analysis on the regulation of nanomedicines in Southern Africa.

Medical products incorporating nanoparticle drug delivery systems (nanomedicines) are therapeutic or imaging agents, which comprise a delivery system within the nanometer size range (1 - 1000 nm). As medical products, nanomedicines meet definitions of medicines according to various national legislations for regulation of medicines. However, for the regulation of nanomedicines, additional assessments including toxicological issues have to be considered. These complexities require extra regulatory effort. In the resource-limited context of low- and middle-income countries, many National Medicines Regulatory Authorities (NMRAs) lack resources and capacities to effectively assure the quality of medicinal products in their countries. With emerging trends in innovative technologies, including nanotechnology, this burden is worsened. The need to overcome regulatory challenges drove the formation of a work sharing initiative in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), ZaZiBoNA in 2013. Regulatory agencies participating in this initiative cooperate in the assessment of applications for registration of medicines. A cross-sectional exploratory study design with qualitative techniques was used to investigate the status of the regulation of nanomedicines in Southern African countries in particular those participating in the ZaZiBoNA initiative. The study found that in general, NMRAs are aware of the existence of nanomedicines and they apply legislation applicable to other medical products. The NMRAs however neither have specific definition for nanomedicines and technical guidance documents, nor technical committees specific for consideration of nanomedicines. Collaboration with external experts or organisations in the regulation of nanomedicines was also found to be lacking. Capacity building and collaboration in the area of regulation of nanomedicines is strongly encouraged.

Human Capital and Environmental Sustainability Nexus in Selected SADC Countries

This paper sought to examine the nexus between human capital and environmental sustainability in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. This contemporary topic has not received much attention in the region, hence the need to investigate the nexus between human capital and environmental sustainability. The paper used one of the most recent methodologies, namely, the pooled mean group (PMG) estimation technique, to assess this relationship from 1980 to 2021. The findings of the study are that human capital increases environmental sustainability in the long run in SADC countries. This implies that as human capital increases, countries will see an increase in technological innovations and research and development (R&D), enabling the mitigation of environmental degradation in the region. Therefore, it is imperative for the region to embark on human capital programs that improve environmental sustainability.

The African Union's quest for a "peaceful and secure Africa": An assessment of Aspiration Four of Agenda 2063

This article undertakes a comprehensive assessment of the African Union (AU)'s Agenda 2063 Aspiration 4: A peaceful and secure Africa and the progress made at continental level towards it. Aspiration 4 is informed by the AU's acknowledgment that the scourge of conflict on the continent plays a significant role in hampering socioeconomic development. Against this background, the article examines the role played by the AU and its regional economic communities (RECs) in response to armed conflict on the continent, as exemplified by the AU and Southern African Development Community (SADC) response to the Cabo Delgado conflict in northern Mozambique. The AU's response to the recent surge of military coups in Africa is also examined, with a focus on the coups in Sudan in 2019 and 2021. The article concludes that the Agenda 2063 blueprint is a useful tool for the continental body when dealing with the scourge of conflicts and unconstitutional changes of governments, which threatens to hamper the AU's developmental agenda.

Social Media and the Glocalisation of SADC’s Regional Economic Integration

The Constitutive Act of the African Union commits to accelerating the socio-economic integration of the continent (Art 4c) by establishing conducive conditions that would enable African economies to be linked to the global economy. The key to implementing effective integration of African economies in both the local and global networks is communication through innovative technology. This paper explores the centrality of social media platforms in growing and enabling the implementation of effective Southern African Development Community (SADC) policies on commerce, trade and economic development. Although traditional methods of exchange of information continue to be used between SADC and the global world, little appears to have been written on the capacity of social media to communicate information on trade in goods and services. Therefore, the central questions are: 1) To what extent have social media platforms enabled the flow of information regarding tradeable goods and services within SADC and between SADC and the global world; and 2) What are the future opportunities and challenges of using social media in advancing SADC commerce? Using the concept of glocalisation, this study engages the political economy of communication technology as a tradeable service, analyses the use of some selected forms of social media in advertising new economic opportunities within SADC, and debates the commoditisation of social news as a form of economic activity. The paper argues that whether social media is used for good or bad in SADC, it remains an instance of creating glocal networks that circulate economic information in ways that are opening new opportunities for and challenges to SADC regional economic integration.

The Legal Complexities of Terrorism as an International Crime Following the Recruitment and Enlistment of Child Soldiers in the Cabo Delgado, Mozambique Insurgency War

The conscription of children in military conflicts within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region was more peculiar to the Democratic Republic of Congo after the Angolan and Mozambican civil wars subsided into peace during the late 1990s. The resurgence of child soldiers in Mozambique under a new Islamic-inspired terrorist phenomenon adds a terrifying dimension that brings legal complexities around defining terrorism and resituating it separately as a crime within the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC). The spectre of terrorism—as the current prime inducement of children into hostilities in Mozambique—has regional, political, economic and security implications, given its magnitude and recurring nature. This research is qualitative in form and its objective is broadening the understanding of terrorism, addressing the recurring recruitment of children into armed conflicts within the SADC region, and making a case for the inclusion of terrorism in the Rome Statute. This is important for the SADC, which had sloughed off the heinous side of civil wars. Research demonstrates that systemic violation of child rights takes an enormous toll on societies, given its extensive physical and psychological harm, and that often children in war-torn societies make up half the population. The findings are that the inclusion of terrorism within the scope of the ICC broadens international accountability mechanisms and acts as a deterrent for the future enlistment of children into armed conflicts.

Investing in intrapreneurial capabilities for improved performance in state-owned enterprises

Background: State-owned enterprises (SOEs) are pivotal to the socio-economic development of any country. However, in most developing countries, these entities are failing to execute their mandate effectively. State-owned enterprises have failed to be responsive to citizens’ needs and deliver public value efficiently because of low investment in intrapreneurial activities by leadership in these entities.Aim: This study set out to examine the effect of intrapreneurial capabilities (ICs) on organisational performance of SOEs.Setting: The population under study was SOEs in Zimbabwe, located in the Southern African Development Community, in Africa.Methods: The study used a qualitative research design. Interviews were the main data collection technique. Data collected from interviews were analysed using thematic network analysis. Document analysis was also used to establish the performance of the SOEs.Results: The study established that ICs have a significant influence on the organisational performance of SOEs. Organisations with stronger ICs developed greater strategic agility and delivered greater public value, in terms of service delivery, customer satisfaction, financial performance and social impact.Conclusion: The study provided evidence of the influence of ICs on intrapreneurial activities and consequently on organisational performance. The study will assist leadership in SOEs to invest in an intrapreneurial architecture in order to assist SOEs to deliver both economic and public value.Contribution: The study has important implications for both practitioners and researchers in that it highlights the importance of investing in superior IC as a means of addressing service and performance challenges faced by SOEs.

To what extent does corruption erode trust? evidence of reputational spillovers from ten countries in the Southern African development community

ABSTRACT Emerging research indicates political corruption erodes political trust. However, previous studies have not adequately explored the question of whether corruption by a policy actor can spill over to influence trust in other policy actors. We draw insight from research and theory on collective reputation of organisations among other literature to explain why political corruption can produce reputational spillovers. Using individual-level Afrobarometer survey data from ten countries in the Southern African Development Community, one of the world’s corruption hotspots, the analysis reveals perceived involvement in corruption by a policy actor can spill over to tarnish the reputation of other actors involved in the policy process. State and nonstate policy actors like politicians, judges, bureaucrats and traditional leaders in some measure share a collective reputation and fate. We offer suggestions on how to combat corruption in ways that minimise spillovers and safeguard a shared reputation.

Determinants of Maternal Mortality in Southern Africa: A Macro-Level Analysis

This study sought to investigate the macro determinants of maternal mortality in Southern African Development Community (SADC) states. The study drew on the fact that maternal mortality remains a major public health issue in developing countries. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were adopted by UN member states in 2000, and one of them was to reduce maternal deaths by three-quarters by 2015. While the Millennium Development Goals increased efforts, the goal was not met in the countries with the highest death rates. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that every single day about 810 women die from pregnancy or childbirth-related complications around the world. This is despite several international initiatives being adopted to reduce maternal mortality. The study was quantitative, and it used secondary data to achieve its objective. A panel data estimation (Generalized Method of Moments) covering the period from 2005–2019 was used to examine how various factors affect maternal mortality. The analysis included the following variables: education, fertility, GDP per capita, institutional quality, health expenditure and HIV infection. The econometric analysis reveals a significant positive impact of fertility, GDP per capita and HIV on maternal mortality. This implies that when fertility, GDP per capita and HIV are increasing, maternal mortality also increases. The analysis also showed that education has a negative relationship with maternal mortality. This implies that when literacy levels (education) increase, maternal mortality decreases. Based on the results, this study emphasizes that, in order to improve maternal health and consequently reduce maternal mortality, access to family planning (to reduce fertility), access to early prenatal care and promoting women’s access to education should be a priority in government policies.

The Southern African Development Community’s Mission in Mozambique (SAMIM): Policymaking and Effectiveness

ABSTRACT On 23 June 2021, after months of deliberations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) approved the establishment of the SADC Mission in Mozambique (SAMIM) in response to escalating violent extremism and insurgency by an Islamist armed group, Al-Shabaab or Al-Sunnah wa Jama’ah (ASWJ), in Mozambique’s northern Cabo Delgado province, which posed the risk of regional contagion. SAMIM was deployed under scenario 6 of the African Standby Force (ASF) with a mandate focused on supporting the Mozambican government to combat terrorism and violent extremism in Cabo Delgado. Its mandate also centred on strengthening and maintaining peace and security; restoring law and order; and assisting the government and humanitarian agencies to provide humanitarian relief to the affected population. This paper contributes to raising public understanding of the regional and continental policies and principles underpinning the SADC decision-making process regarding the deployment of peace missions and the effectiveness of SAMIM in fulfilling its mandated tasks until its first anniversary. It identified the relative pacification of Cabo Delgado as a crucial strategic and operational impact of SAMIM’s exceptional military intervention, which facilitated its segue into a multidimensional peacebuilding mission. Six principal constraints-cum-opportunities of SAMIM, which had a significant bearing on its effectiveness, are discussed.

ANGOLAN PORT INFRASTRUCTURE AND THE COMPETITIVENESS IN THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY

<p>Africa has nine transit corridors, two intra-regional corridors and two main east-west corridors. Africa accounts for about 13% of the world´s population and includes 54 countries, of which 38 have coastline access along the continent´s 30,490 Km of coastline and 16 are landlocked. However, 90% of the volume of cargo between Africa and the world is transported by sea, which typifies the importance of port infrastructure in economic development. This research presents a comparative analysis of the port infrastructures in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) based on the weight capacity that the ports support, waiting time for ships in ports, the connection of infrastructure networks, the growth of GDP per capita and the entry of ships in the country during the year by type of cargo. Similarly, determinant factors of port infrastructure management were identified. The objective is to characterize the competitive position of Angolan’s port infrastructure in the SADC context. The results show that Angola’s port infrastructure is not the worst in SADC. However, the lack of good roads and railroads reduce its competitiveness in relation to Namibian and South African port infrastructure.<br /> <br /><strong>JEL:</strong> R40; R41</p><p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0022/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

The impact of COVID‐19 on cybersecurity awareness‐raising and mindset in the southern African development community (SADC)

AbstractAt the beginning of 2020, the world came to a stand‐still when governments across the globe decided to enter states of ‘emergency’ or ‘disaster’ over the breakout of the COVID‐19 pandemic. The responses to the pandemic included stringent movement restrictions and hygiene advice preventing face‐to‐face interactions. As a result, many activities, including schooling, working, and shopping were moved online, drastically increasing exposure to cyber threats and risks. It is unclear if and how the rapid increase in internet use corresponded to an improvement in cybersecurity mindset development in countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). This paper explores the effect of the increase in digital technology usage due to the COVID‐19 pandemic restrictions on the relationship between cybersecurity awareness‐raising initiatives and the development of higher levels of cybersecurity mindset in Botswana, Lesotho, and Malawi. These three countries have a similar cybersecurity footprint and an average cybersecurity capacity level for the region. The research applies a comparative multiple case study approach relying on a thematic review of the literature and related documents, supported by in‐depth interviews with purposefully selected key informants from the three selected SADC countries. Findings suggest that since the start of the COVID‐19 pandemic, awareness‐raising programs have gained some momentum in our selected countries, but the cybersecurity mindset has not improved. That was attributed to low frequency and poor quality of campaigns added to the lack of training, education and lived experience. The paper highlights the need to increase the frequency and improve the quality of programmes, for greater impact on the development of local cybersecurity mindsets.

Tax revenue mobilization effort in Southern African Development Community (SADC) bloc: Does ICT matter?

Formulae display:?Mathematical formulae have been encoded as MathML and are displayed in this HTML version using MathJax in order to improve their display. Uncheck the box to turn MathJax off. This feature requires Javascript. Click on a formula to zoom.

SADC'S transport infrastructure: enhancing the AFCFTA’s prospects through regional economic integration

There is considerable significance, associated with the fact that the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) has the potential to lift 68 million people out of moderate poverty. If fully implemented, the AfCFTA is estimated to increase regional income by 7 % by 2035. Operationalizing and implementing the African Continental Free Trade Area strategy, including regulating the regional economies' transport infrastructure, requires a great deal of work. It is the purpose of this article to examine how Regional Economic Communities (RECs), such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC), can contribute to the AfCFTA.
 In comparison with other regional blocs, intra-SADC trade represents only 10 to 14 percent of member countries' total trade [1, 2]. Despite Southern African trade routes and infrastructure being among the best. In terms of infrastructure coverage, Southern African countries still lag behind the rest of the world, whether it's road and telecommunications technology (ICT), population density, or power generation. Whether at the national or regional level, these types of infrastructure weaknesses reinforce the infrastructure deficit and exacerbate unemployment, inequality and poverty in the region.
 For the purposes of this article, a qualitative approach is being used to examine primary and secondary literature, including statistics, reports, and journal articles. According to the results of the study, the REC's infrastructure strategy will positively affect trade and, in turn, boost AfCFTA by improving trade among member states. To spawn structural transformation and create transnational growth corridors capable of driving economic growth and technological advancement, new transformative strategies are required.