Southeast Wisconsin Research Articles

Editorial introductions

Editorial introductions

Using AI to Understand Key Success Features in Evolving CTSAs

A vital role for Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) evaluators is to first identify and then articulate the necessary change processes that support the research infrastructures and achieve synergies needed to improve health through research. The use of qualitative evaluation strategies to compliment quantitative tracking measures (e.g., number of grants/publications) is an essential but under-utilized approach in CTSA evaluations. The Clinical and Translational Science Institute of Southeast Wisconsin implemented a qualitative evaluation approach using appreciative inquiry (AI) that has revealed three critical features associated with CTSA infrastructure transformation success: developing open communication, creating opportunities for proactive collaboration, and ongoing attainment of milestones at the key function group level. These findings are consistent with Bolman & Deal's four interacting hallmarks of successful organizations: structural (infrastructure), political (power distribution; organizational politics), human resource (facilitating change among humans necessary for continued success), and symbolic (visions and aspirations). Data gathered through this longitudinal AI approach illuminates how these change features progress over time as CTSA funded organizations successfully create the multiinstitutional infrastructures to connect laboratory discoveries with the diagnosis and treatment of human disease.

Sources of metals and bromine-containing particles in Milwaukee

An Aerosol Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer (ATOFMS) was deployed in summer 2010 in central Milwaukee as part of a study to understand the sources of primary and secondary aerosol in the non-attainment area of Southeast Wisconsin. Measurements were made continually from mid-July to mid-August, collecting time, size, and chemical composition data on aerosol particles. Trace metals including Se, Cd, Mo, and Sb were detected in the particles. These metals were found to be related and provided information on source types in Milwaukee, generally located southwest of the sampling site, from plumes that appear to originate from point sources. Additionally, Br was detected in individual particle mass spectra during this study, the first such observation at an inland site. Particles that contained Br were found in two different size modes, each of which had a different representative chemical composition. In combination with an analysis of wind direction, the data suggest that the two different size modes of Br-containing particles originate from chemically distinct sources.

Defining and Describing Optimal Management Practices and their Effects on Agency Performance of Not-for-Profit Organizations in Southeast Wisconsin

Defining and Describing Optimal Management Practices and their Effects on Agency Performance of Not-for-Profit Organizations in Southeast Wisconsin

The legacy of pipeline installation on the soil and vegetation of southeast Wisconsin wetlands

Installation of large-scale infrastructure, including pipelines, has the potential to damage soil and vegetation in wetlands within the path of construction by compacting soil, altering hydrology, decreasing plant diversity, and facilitating invasions of unwanted species. We sampled soil and vegetation in seven southeast Wisconsin wetlands eight years after they were crossed by a natural gas pipeline to compare areas inside and outside the pipeline corridor (land within 12 m of the pipe, where construction was permitted). Soils consistently showed evidence of compaction and hydrologic alteration. Across sites the pipeline corridor soil had 63% higher bulk density, 13% lower depth to refusal and 19% lower soil moisture ( P < 0.0001 for all). In contrast, the diversity and quality of vegetation (species richness, Simpson's dominance, and mean coefficient of conservatism) inside and outside the pipeline corridor varied among sites. A site with relatively high native plant diversity outside the pipeline corridor showed lower richness and higher dominance inside the corridor ( P < 0.05 for both); whereas, in sites that were strongly dominated by invasive grasses, Phalaris arundinacea and Glyceria maxima, vegetation either showed no change or positive changes in diversity and quality in the pipeline corridor. We suspect the net positive effects of pipeline installation on vegetation in some sites owes to (1) the presence of monotype-forming invasive species outside the pipeline corridor in those sites, (2) post-construction planting and subsequent maintenance-mowing of the pipeline corridor, and (3) colonization within the corridor by additional species (mostly upland species). However, our vegetation results do not undercut the overall negative impacts of pipeline installation on wetland soils, which were still observable eight years after construction. While soil might be the more consistent indicator of pipeline impacts in wetlands, the site-specific and sometimes-positive response of vegetation highlights (1) the need for better pre-construction surveys, so that impacts can be minimized at high-quality sites and (2) the potentially high return on post-construction planting and maintenance.

The relative significance of environmental and anthropogenic factors affecting zooplankton community structure in Southeast Wisconsin Till Plain lakes

Zooplankton community composition can be related to natural environmental factors such as lake morphology, lake landscape position, and water chemistry as well as anthropogenic factors such as agricultural and urban land-use. We hypothesized that within-lake factors, such as water chemistry, lake morphology, and human land-use would each be related to zooplankton community structure, but that watershed land-use would be the strongest correlate in southeast Wisconsin lakes. Zooplankton samples, collected every 3 months over a year, from 29 lakes were used to determine how lake and watershed morphology, water quality, and land-use were related to zooplankton community structure in the heavily developed Southeast Wisconsin Till Plain Ecoregion. Forward selection and a variation partitioning procedure were used to determine relative and shared contributions of each suite of variables in predicting zooplankton community structure. Redundancy analysis was used to characterize dominant gradients in pelagic zooplankton communities and related environmental factors and land-use. The major correlates of community structure included summer phosphorus, lake depth and surface area and urban and natural land. Variation partitioning illustrated that phosphorus alone accounts for the greatest part (12%) of community structure. Urban land-uses (residential, commercial and paved land) and lake morphology partially explain zooplankton community variation through combined effects with phosphorus. Small cladocerans and Skistodiaptomus pallidus were associated with higher phosphorus, shallow depth and higher urban land-use, while Daphnia pulicaria dominates in deep lakes with lower phosphorus and less urban land-use. This study contributes to the understanding of factors affecting zooplankton community structure in a largely human developed region and illustrates the importance of eutrophication in structuring zooplankton community composition.

Development of Web-Based Transit Trip-Planning System Based on Service-Oriented Architecture

The majority of transit trip planners exist as proprietary systems based on particular vendor products. With the incorporation of more functional components, system maintenance and regular transit information updates become burdensome tasks for transit agencies. In addition, the proprietary nature of the systems makes it difficult to take advantage of the rapid advancement of geospatial information and web technologies. The authors proposed an open and interoperable transit trip-planning system based on a service-oriented architecture, with the principle of reusing the existing modular resources, while providing user-friendly interfaces for expansion of functionality. The objective was to integrate geospatial services available online (such as Google Maps), open-source geospatial database technologies, and path-finding algorithms in a loosely coupled manner. The proposed system was developed with spatial and temporal transit data from Waukesha Metro Transit in Wisconsin. Research results were validated by comparing outputs from the existing South-East Wisconsin Transit Trip Planner and route schedule matching. Comparison results showed that the new service-oriented architecture provided a flexible, efficient mechanism for transit-trip planners. The architecture took advantage of rapidly changing online geospatial services, yet maintained the core functions of itinerary search that may be unique to each transit agency.

Arsenic Geochemistry and Hydrostratigraphy in Midwestern U.S. Glacial Deposits

Arsenic concentrations exceeding the U.S. EPA's 10 μg/L standard are common in glacial aquifers in the midwestern United States. Previous studies have indicated that arsenic occurs naturally in these aquifers in association with metal-(hydr)oxides and is released to groundwater under reducing conditions generated by microbial oxidation of organic matter. Despite this delineation of the arsenic source and mechanism of arsenic mobilization, identification of arsenic-impacted aquifers is hindered by the heterogeneous and discontinuous nature of glacial sediments. In much of the Midwest, the hydrostratigraphy of glacial deposits is not sufficiently characterized to predict where elevated arsenic concentrations are likely to occur. This case study from southeast Wisconsin presents a detailed characterization of local stratigraphy, hydrostratigraphy, and geochemistry of the Pleistocene glacial deposits and underlying Silurian dolomite. Analyses of a single core, water chemistry data, and well construction reports enabled identification of two aquifers separated by an organic-rich aquitard. The upper, unconfined aquifer provides potable water, whereas arsenic generally exceeds 10 μg/L in the deeper aquifer. Although coring and detailed hydrostratigraphic characterization are often considered impractical, our results demonstrate that a single core improved interpretation of the complex lithology and hydrostratigraphy. This detailed characterization of hydrostratigraphy facilitated development of well construction guidelines and lays the ground work for further studies of the complex interactions among aquifer sediments, hydrogeology, water chemistry, and microbiology that lead to elevated arsenic in groundwater.

Feasibility and reliability of classifying gross motor function among children with cerebral palsy using population‐based record surveillance

For conditions with wide-ranging consequences, such as cerebral palsy (CP), population-based surveillance provides an estimate of the prevalence of case status but only the broadest understanding of the impact of the condition on children, families or society. Beyond case status, information regarding health, functional skills and participation is necessary to fully appreciate the consequences of the condition. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility and reliability of enhancing population-based surveillance by classifying gross motor function (GMF) from information available in medical records of children with CP. We assessed inter-rater reliability of two GMF classification methods, one the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) and the other a 3-category classification of walking ability: (1) independently, (2) with handheld mobility device, or (3) limited or none. Two qualified clinicians independently reviewed abstracted evaluations from medical records of 8-year-old children residing in southeast Wisconsin, USA who were identified as having CP (n = 154) through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network. Ninety per cent (n = 138) of the children with CP had information in the record after age 4 years and 108 (70%) had adequate descriptions of gross motor skills to classify using the GMFCS. Agreement was achieved on 75.0% of the GMFCS ratings (simple kappa = 0.67, 95% confidence interval [95% CI 0.57, 0.78], weighted kappa = 0.83, [95% CI 0.77, 0.89]). Among case children for whom walking ability could be classified (n = 117), approximately half walked independently without devices and one-third had limited or no walking ability. Across walking ability categories, agreement was reached for 94% (simple kappa = 0.90, [95% CI 0.82, 0.96], weighted kappa = 0.94, [95% CI 0.89, 0.98]). Classifying GMF in the context of active records-based surveillance is feasible and reliable. Future surveillance efforts that include functional level among children with cerebral palsy may provide important information for monitoring the impact of the condition for programmatic and policy purposes.

A Fresh Look at Road Salt: Aquatic Toxicity and Water-Quality Impacts on Local, Regional, and National Scales

A new perspective on the severity of aquatic toxicity impact of road salt was gained by a focused research effort directed at winter runoff periods. Dramatic impacts were observed on local, regional, and national scales. Locally, samples from 7 of 13 Milwaukee, Wisconsin area streams exhibited toxicity in Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pimephales promelas bioassays during road-salt runoff. Another Milwaukee stream was sampled from 1996 to 2008 with 72% of 37 samples exhibiting toxicity in chronic bioassays and 43% in acute bioassays. The maximum chloride concentration was 7730 mg/L. Regionally, in southeast Wisconsin, continuous specific conductance was monitored as a chloride surrogate in 11 watersheds with urban land use from 6.0 to 100%. Elevated specific conductance was observed between November and April at all sites, with continuing effects between May and October at sites with the highest specific conductance. Specific conductance was measured as high as 30 800 μS/cm (Cl = 11 200 mg/L). Chloride concentrations exceeded U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) acute (860 mg/L) and chronic (230 mg/L) water-quality criteria at 55 and 100% of monitored sites, respectively. Nationally, U.S. Geological Survey historical data were examined for 13 northern and 4 southern metropolitan areas. Chloride concentrations exceeded USEPA water-quality criteria at 55% (chronic) and 25% (acute) of the 168 monitoring locations in northern metropolitan areas from November to April. Only 16% (chronic) and 1% (acute) of sites exceeded criteria from May to October. At southern sites, very few samples exceeded chronic water-quality criteria, and no samples exceeded acute criteria.

Advancing Our Knowledge of ADHD in Latino Children: Psychometric and Cultural Properties of Spanish-Versions of Parental/Family Functioning Measures

The lack of available Spanish versions of assessment measures contributes to insufficient research and underutilization of mental health services for Latino children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Thus, the goal of the current study was to examine the psychometric and cultural properties of several Spanish versions of parental/family functioning measures commonly used in comprehensive ADHD assessments (i.e., the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, Alabama Parenting Questionnaire, and Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale). Participants included 68 Spanish-speaking, Latino parents in Southeast Wisconsin. In general, the Spanish translations of the measures demonstrated good reliability and validity. Furthermore, the psychometrically-sound measures were significantly related to acculturation as predicted, suggesting that the scales are not only psychometrically valid, but also culturally valid for use with Spanish-speaking, Latino families.

Migration Routes, Reproduction, and Lifespan of a Translocated Osprey

We monitored one female hack-released Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) across her lifespan and identified her migration routes over a 4-year period (2002–2006) using satellite radiotelemetry. We documented the recruitment of this bird into the breeding population and her lifetime reproductive success. This Osprey was raised at Big Muskego Lake in southeast Wisconsin, wintered at Lake Bayano in Panama (3,877 km south-southeast [163°] of Big Muskego Lake), and nested near St. Paul, Minnesota (4,183 km north-northwest [343°] of Lake Bayano and 446 km northwest [300°] of Big Muskego Lake). The lifespan of this female was 5 years, 5 months, and her lifetime reproductive success was three young over a period of 3 years, 2005–2007, as a breeder. Migration routes of this individual Osprey changed over her lifespan; these changes may have been influenced by weather.

Application and Integration of Lattice Data Analysis, Network K-Functions, and Geographic Information System Software to Study Ice-Related Crashes

Advances in geographic information system (GIS) software and exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) techniques give transportation safety engineers tools to observe and analyze safety-related data from a new perspective. This research takes the use of GIS software and ESDA techniques one step further by incorporating advanced statistical techniques for a more thorough and complex analysis of safety data. This is achieved by implementing a network-constrained cross K-function to analyze the relationship between bridges and the occurrences of ice-related crashes within a county. The counties in Wisconsin included in the analysis were selected through the use of the local Moran's I statistic; this statistic allows for the selection of counties within the same geographical area, which have similar parameters (in this case, ice-related crash rates). The objective of this research is to explore the relationship between ice-related crashes and bridges in counties that display similar ice-related crash rates, to compare and analyze winter maintenance techniques. The results identify clustering of ice-related crashes around bridges in four counties with similar ice-related crash rates in southeast Wisconsin. Similarly, two of four counties show clustering of ice-related crashes around bridges in northwest Wisconsin. These results make a strong case to suggest that counties in these regions should focus additional winter maintenance efforts at bridge locations. In addition, this research shows how the use of advanced spatial statistical techniques, particularly network-based statistics applied within a GIS environment, can be used as a unique and innovative approach toward safety data analysis.

Low Prevalence of Trichomonas gallinae in Urban and Migratory Cooper's Hawks in Northcentral North America

Trichomoniasis is a digestive tract disease caused by ingestion of the protozoan Trichomonas gallinae. This disease can be a significant source of mortality. No deaths of nestlings could be attributed to trichomoniasis in Cooper's Hawks (Accipiter cooperii) breeding in urban and rural environs in Wisconsin, North Dakota, and British Columbia. We detected T. gallinae in four (5.2%) of 77 nestling Cooper's Hawks during 2006 and 2007 among 42 urban nests on new study areas in southeast Wisconsin and eastern North Dakota/western Minnesota. All four infected young fledged. We did not detect T. gallinae in 52 breeding adult Cooper's Hawks on two urban study sites, nor in 28 migrant hatching year (n = 24) and adult (n = 4) Cooper's Hawks at Hawk Ridge Nature Reserve, Duluth, Minnesota in 2006–2007. Overall, we detected T. gallinae in only 2.5% of 157 Cooper's Hawks in northcentral North America. These results suggest a low prevalence of T. gallinae in Cooper's Hawks in the northern part of this hawk's breeding range.

Landscape Correlates of Reproductive Success for an Urban–Suburban Red-Tailed Hawk Population

We studied the reproductive success of an urban–suburban red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) population in southeast Wisconsin, USA, over a 14-year period, and we used productivity as a measure of habitat quality. Red-tailed hawk reproductive success for our study in southeast Wisconsin, USA, is consistent with other studies across North America, averaging 80.1% nesting success and 1.36 young per laying pair. Productivity for 1994 was significantly greater than other years. Red-tailed hawk productivity, an index of habitat quality, varied with habitat composition surrounding nest sites. Wetland area was the only habitat type that was significantly greater for low-productivity sites, indicating that wetlands were not beneficial for red-tailed hawk productivity in our study area. Urban habitat characteristics (i.e., area of roads and high-density urban land) were greater for high-productivity sites, and the landscape consisted of smaller habitat patches. This indicates that urban–suburban locations provided high-quality habitat for red-tailed hawks in our study area. Higher productivity in high-density urban areas suggests that the urban red-tailed hawk may be a source, not a sink, population in the metropolitan Milwaukee area. Increased nesting on human-made structures in urban locations and enhanced reproductive success for these nests reinforce this hypothesis and suggest that red-tailed hawks are adapting to this urban environment. Resource managers and urban land-use planners can incorporate high-quality red-tailed hawk habitat characteristics into urban land-use plans, thus insuring that individuals with increased fitness persist in this urban landscape.

Serologic Evidence of West Nile Virus Infection in Three Wild Raptor Populations

We assayed for West Nile virus (WNV) antibodies to determine the presence and prevalence of WNV infection in three raptor populations in southeast Wisconsin during 2003-04. This study was conducted in the framework of ongoing population studies that started before WNV was introduced to the study area. For 354 samples, 88% of 42 adult Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii), 2.1% of 96 nestling Cooper's hawks, 9.2% of 141 nestling red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), and 12% of 73 nestling great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) tested positive for WNV antibodies by the constant virus-serum dilution neutralization test. Samples that tested positive for WNV antibodies were collected across a wide variety of habitat types, including urban habitats (both high and low density), roads, parking areas, recreational areas, croplands, pastures, grasslands, woodlands, and wetlands. Based on the increased prevalence and significantly higher WNV antibody titers in adults compared with nestlings, we suggest that nestlings with detectable antibody levels acquired these antibodies through passive transmission from the mother during egg production. Low levels of WNV antibodies in nestlings could serve as a surrogate marker of exposure in adult raptor populations. Based on breeding population densities and reproductive success over the past 15 yr, we found no apparent adverse effects of WNV infections on these wild raptor populations.

Hedonic Pricing and Willingness to Pay for Bed and Breakfast Amenities in Southeast Wisconsin

While the hedonic price model has been used to evaluate willingness to pay in a variety of markets, its use in the tourism industry is limited. This research note highlights the usefulness of the hedonic price technique in this industry by evaluating willingness to pay for specific characteristics of bed and breakfast accommodations. Heterogeneity in price and amenities offered by bed and breakfast accommodations enables us to generate estimates of willingness to pay for specific characteristics. Using data on price and amenities collected from bed and breakfast accommodations in Southeast Wisconsin, the findings show a willingness to pay for specific characteristics such as a hot tub, a private bath, and a larger room. However, fireplaces, themes, scenic views, and room service were not statistically significant determinants of price. Location characteristics, day of week, and time of year are also found to be important.

Comparisons of P-Yield, Riparian Buffer Strips, and Land Cover inSix Agricultural Watersheds

Riparian buffer strips may protect streams from phosphorus (P) pollution. We compared 2 years of daily P-yield (μg m−2 day−1) from six southeast Wisconsin watersheds with contrasting riparian buffer attributes. Of the variables measured, mean daily P-yield was most closely correlated with the variability in riparian patch size. Variability in P-yield was most closely correlated with characteristics of the riparian buffer, such as percent wetland land cover, riparian continuity, and stream sinuosity. During the most extreme events, mean P-yield was negatively correlated with the percentage of wetland land cover in the upland watershed. Correlations suggest that riparian continuity may influence P-loading in these watersheds. Our results corroborate the importance of continuity and uniformity of riparian buffers as moderators of P flow from upland agricultural lands into streams.

Diversity policy in higher education: the impact of college students' exposure to diversity on cultural awareness and political participation

The current policy environment regarding affirmative action and diversity mandates in higher education makes it necessary to analyse the impact of exposure to diversity on the goals of higher education, including greater cultural awareness and the promotion of democratic citizenship. This essay discusses the findings of a study conducted at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater - a regional, state university located in southeast Wisconsin enrolling approximately 10 000 students - in which students were asked about their attitudes and experiences regarding diversity. Regression analysis indicates that students with greater exposure to diversity in the form of college educational exposure, peer exposure and pre-college exposure had greater levels of cultural awareness and political participation.

Effects of management burning on prairie insect species richness within a system of small, highly fragmented reserves

A growing number of entomologists are expressing concern that insect species are being extirpated from fire-managed (F-M) reserves and are urging that management burning be substantially reduced. In accord with this view, the fire attrition hypothesis predicts that fire-excluded (F-E) sites will support greater species richness, greater mean population densities, and an inordinately large number of species that are absent from F-M sites. Comparative studies of remnant-dependent (r-d) species among F-M and F-E systems in northern Illinois, northwest Indiana, and southeast Wisconsin failed to support these predictions. Our results suggest that the fire-attrition model, based on prevailing burn practices, may be applicable to few if any species. We conclude that prevailing rotational, cool season burning practices have generally been compatible with the conservation of insect biodiversity within the highly fragmented prairie reserve system in the Chicago region.