South Ossetia Research Articles

The taxonomic status of the vipers of the Pelias (kaznakovi) complex in the middle-flow of the Kura River basin in the East Transcaucasia

Recently, the Caucasian viper was found in a number of localities in South Ossetia (Tuniyev et al. 2017a,b; Tuniyev et al. 2019) and in the lower gate of the Borzhom Gorge of Eastern Georgia. Animals from the new localities are compared to Pelias kaznakovi from the Western Caucasus – northeastern Turkey and P. dinniki. The canonical discriminate analysis (CDA) showed that the snakes from the left-bank basin of the middle flow of the Kura River in East Georgia and South Ossetia differ significantly from Pelias kaznakovi from Krasnodar Territory and Abkhazia in the mean values of several plastic and meristic characters. Thus, there is discrimination of the groups allocated according to geographic location and gender. Cluster analysis based on meristic characters of pholidosis showed the distance between P. dinniki and the remaining “kaznakovi” complex forms. Based on the results of the analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, the snakes from the left-bank basin of the middle flow of the Kura River form a separate cluster, not sister to Pelias kaznakovi. The results obtained on morphology, genetics and ecology of the studied vipers suggest the taxonomic validity of the vipers from the left bank basin of the middle flow of the Kura River in Eastern Georgia and South Ossetia. The species is named after Boris Tuniyev, who made a significant contribution to the study of the Caucasian herpetofauna and taxonomy of the shield-head viper snakes. Among the representatives of the “kaznakovi” complex, males of the new species are characterized by the minimal values of body length, pileus length, head width, number of ventral and subcaudal shields, as well as the shields around the eyes; differences are also noted in the structure of the hemipenis; the females have the minimum values of body length, pileus length, head width, number of shields around the eyes and loreals, fewer wings of zigzag. All known finds are located in the left bank basin of the middle flow of the Kura River from the Borzhom Gorge (east slope of Meskheti Ridge) in Georgia to the mid-altitude mountain districts of South Ossetia (east foothills of Likhsky Ridge and south spurs of Central Caucasus). Biotopes of the new species are character- ized by more xero-mesophilic traits and a moderately warm mezo-climate than the typical mesophilic biotopes of North-Colchian (Krasnodar Territory – Abkhazia) and, especially, Adzharo-Lazistanian (Georgia – Turkey) P. kaznakovi living in the humid subtropical climate.

Phylogeography of a Darevskia (caucasica) complex (Lacertidae: Sauria) based on the cytochrome b mitochondrial gene analysis

The range of superspecific complex of rock lizards Darevskia (caucasica) (D. alpina, D. c. caucasica, D. c. vedenica, D. daghestanica) includes the Main Caucasian ridge and its spurs on the southern and northern macroslopes within heights from 500 m to 3200 m above sea level. A fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (1096 bp) was analyzed in 48 specimens of these lizards. Specimens were collected in 23 localities. We have found 39 unique haplotypes. The minimum genetic diversity was found in D. c. vedenica, maximum in D. c. caucasica. All taxa of the complex, except for D. c. vedenica, demonstrate genetic heterogeneity. Four clades can be distinguished on the dendrogram of phylogenetic relationships. They correspond to D. alpina, D. c. caucasica, D. c. vedenica, D. daghestanica. D. c. caucasica forms two distinct haplogroups. On the phylogenetic tree, the sample of D. c. vedenica formed an independent clade close to D. c. caucasica. The Darevskia (caucasica) complex is polyphyletic according to the analysis of the mitochondrial marker. Nucleotide sequences of D. alpina formed a single clade with Darevskia (saxicola) complex representatives and combined with the sequences of D. brauneri into subclade. On the example of the population of D. daghestanica, found in a forest biotope without rocky outcrops and genetically not differing from individuals from the adjacent territory, the ability of rocky lizards to master biotopes unusual for them in a short period of time was demonstrated. This example demonstrates the ability of rock lizards to adapt to unusual biotopes in a short period of time. Genetic distance between D. c. vedenica and D. c. caucasica is comparable to the distance between D. c. caucasica and D. daghestanica. We assume the existence of an independent form of D. caucasica ssp. inhabiting South Ossetia and adjacent territories.

Migration Problems at the Regional Security Level: Reasons for Georgian Migration Abroad

Abstract Migration has become one of the most current themes in the reality of Georgian society since the destruction of the Soviet Union. However, this process dates backs to the twentieth century in the history of Georgian migration. Wars, chaos and turmoil, geopolitical location, and social and political conflicts constantly triggered the population to migrate either within the country or abroad. The most recent history of Georgian migration can be divided into several waves or phases: 1. Before the 1950s (Soviet Union regime), when the population was forced to leave their living place by brutal political repressions; 2. In the period of the 1950s to the 1990s, when Georgians migrated within the territory of the Soviet Union Republic; 3. The mass migration of the 1990s, which was caused by social crisis, economic hardship, political turmoil, military conflicts (including inter-ethnic conflicts in Abkhazia (1992–1993) and South Ossetia (1988–1992) and the civil war of 1993, against the democratically elected Georgian president Zviad Gamsakhurdia; 4. The later migration outflow from Georgia was mainly recorded in 2000, when a huge wave of migrants went to Russia but, as the visa regime had been restricted, Georgian citizens had to choose another destination. This time migrants headed to European countries and the USA. It has to be mentioned that since 2002, the emigration process has become more and more diverse as the motivation of migrants varied as well as the places of destination. Unfortunately, the data that reflects the precise picture of migration in Georgia does not exist. Even the official data cannot be acknowledged as accurate information about the migrants or migration because of the absence of a precise mechanism that collects reliable statistical information. It depicts data based on various sources and methodologies that should be taken into consideration when highlighting the number of migrants.

Formation and development of innovative agricultural system of the Republic of South Ossetia

The paper discusses the theoretical and practical aspects of innovative development of agriculture in the Republic of South Ossetia, whose territory is located in the foothills and mountains, which imposes special requirements on the technologies used for the production of agricultural products, raw materials and agricultural food. The ambiguity of ongoing processes in the agricultural sector of the economy, including a high level of unoccupied population in rural areas and a low level of involvement in the turnover of agricultural land requires new approaches to regulating innovation processes. A set of measures and directions for the formation of the innovation system of the Republic of South Ossetia is proposed, in which the key role is assigned to the recommended interstate technological agricultural platform.

Особенности и перспективы взаимодействия Российской Федерации и Республики Южная Осетия на современном этапе

Особенности и перспективы взаимодействия Российской Федерации и Республики Южная Осетия на современном этапе

Explaining Foreign Policy Deviations: The Strategic Rationale of Russia’s Recognition of Abkhazia’s and South Ossetia’s Independence

This paper is aimed at explaining why Russia, despite its previous foreign policy course on the reverse, proceeded to recognise the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in 2008. It put itself at odds with its long-established foreign policy of non-recognition of secessionist entities in the post-Soviet space and primacy of territorial sovereignty in international relations. The paper argues that the recognition was not a necessary component of Russia’s military intervention, and was, as such, a serious deviation in its foreign policy, the sources of which are sought to be explained. It examines three explanations, and argues that the shift was to a lesser extent related to the recognition of Kosovo by the West, rather than the critical deterioration in the bilateral relations between Russia and Georgia, and a situation of affect that acted as the final trigger. It also argues that the military intervention and the recognition are both important for understanding the subsequent paradigm shift in Russian foreign policy that only came during the Crimea crisis.

ЭКЗОГЕННЫЕ И ЭНДОГЕННЫЕ ФАКТОРЫ РАЗВИТИЯ АГРАРНОЙ СФЕРЫ ЭКОНОМИКИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ЮЖНАЯ ОСЕТИЯ

The study is devoted to the development of the agrarian sphere of unrecognized (partially recognized) small states, on the example of the Republic of South Ossetia. The purpose of this work is to identify exogenous and endogenous factors affecting the increase in the efficiency of agricultural production within the framework of the export-oriented model of the national economy of the RSO. Research object: the economy of agriculture of the RSO. The scientific novelty of the research is determined by the provisions revealing (1) the results of the analysis of criteria, endogenous and exogenous factors affecting the development of South Ossetia, (2) determining the directions of improving the organizational and economic mechanism of agricultural development in the RSO, based on endogenous and exogenous factors, (3) characteristics of the economic -institutional solutions to overcome barriers to intensifying the export of agricultural products, tourist services, etc.

Агротуризм как фактор социально-экономического развития сельских территорий Республики Южная Осетия

The article examines topical issues of the formation and development of agricultural tourism in rural areas of unrecognized (partially recognized) small states on the example of the Republic of South Ossetia (RSO). The purpose of this work is to scientifically substantiate and develop organizational and economic conditions for the formation of agritourism as a factor in the socio-economic development of rural areas. The object of research is agritourism business and its impact on the economy of rural households and the development of rural areas of the Republic of South Ossetia (RSO). The scientific novelty of the research lies: in the methodological substantiation of the need to develop agrarian tourism as a special non-agricultural form of family small business in rural settlements; in systematization of various models of agritourism in order to adapt and use the most acceptable forms of them in the conditions of rural areas of the RSO; in development of a system of organizational measures and economic mechanisms for the creation of a republican rural agrarian and tourist cluster, closely interacting with the tourist business community of the neighboring North Caucasian republics of the Russian Federation; in development and substantiation of a basic model of rural family agritourism, based on the historical traditions of Ossetians, who have preserved their identity, culture, language and national flavor of their ancient ancestors - Alans.

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The purpose of the article is to reveal the peculiarities of the involvement of the UN, the OSCE and the EU in the settlement of the conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia by conducting a comparative analysis. Our task is to find out the main differences and peculiarities of the two conflicts, to study the role of the OSCE, the UN, the EU in the conflict settlement process, to identify the strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the OSCE, the UN and the EU in both conflicts. Both scientific (analysis, synthesis, historical principle) and special (logical-comparative, comparative) methods were used during the research. As a result of the research, we have come to the conclusion that due to the legal-historical peculiarities of the two conflicts, the parties and organizations involved in them have different interests. We can say that the OSCE and the UN have made a significant contribution to the settlement of the conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia respectively, but both have not been able to reach a final settlement. Given that the author presents the main tools and involvement of the three organizations in the conflict resolution process, the author argues that the UN had the largest resources and tools amongst the three organizations, but the OSCE was the most effective in resolving the conflict.

Южный Кавказ: этапы постсоветской истории

The post-Soviet history of the South Caucasus is divided into three stages of different duration, format and character. The first stage (1991-2008) began after the collapse of the USSR and continued until the war in South Ossetia in August 2008. At this time, the formation of independent states took place, the vectors of foreign policy of the new states were determined. The second stage of the post-Soviet history of the South Caucasus (2008-2020) began after a five-day war and Russia's recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Russia has strengthened its position in the South Caucasus by building a long-term system of response to potential threats in the southern direction. The Georgian factor has ceased to play an important role, the Armenian direction has become the main one in the policy of the United States and the collective West. To reformat the South Caucasus in American interests, “football diplomacy” was used, and then the second Karabakh war followed. After the end of the second Karabakh war, the third stage of the post-Soviet development of the South Caucasus began. At the end of 2020, Moscow managed to stabilize the situation and bring a contingent of Russian peacekeepers into the conflict zone. Further prospects for the development of the South Caucasus depend on many contradictory factors. The more tense the international situation and Russia's relations with the United States and the collective West will be, the higher the likelihood of the outbreak of new wars and conflicts in the South Caucasus.

The changing geo-cultural space of the CIS countries in the 20-21st centuries (on the material of renaming cities)

The article deals with the main cultural and geographical approaches to the study of renaming — critical-toponymic, palimpsest, geoconceptual. From the position of conceptualization of space, a typology of renaming geographical objects is proposed. Among the main motives for renaming are the following: status, national renaming, de-Sovietization and de-Russification of space, “new Russification” of space. On the basis of a large amount of factual material, the changes in the geocultural space of the Neighboring countries are investigated. At the same time, there are 3 groups of countries: countries with a transformed geocultural space, where renaming affected more than half of the studied objects, countries with a changed cultural and geographical space, where renaming covers from 25 to 50 % of the cities considered, and countries with a slightly changed geocultural space (renaming covers less than a quarter of the studied objects). A significant group of countries of the Near Abroad (Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, South Ossetia) belongs to the countries with a transformed cultural space. These countries are characterized by the processes of revolutionary attitude to the Soviet heritage (with the exception of Abkhazia and South Ossetia) and active cultural and linguistic innovations. Two countries of the Near Abroad (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) belong to the countries with a changed cultural space. A significant group of countries in the Near Abroad belongs to countries with poorly modified cultural space (renaming covers less than a quarter of the studied objects). These are Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Armenia, Georgia and Uzbekistan. Some of these countries are characterized by a low rate of cultural and linguistic innovation. Others — the Baltic states, Armenia, and Georgia-experienced waves of renaming much earlier, in pre-Soviet or Soviet times.

GEORGIAN ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICT AS A SUBJECT OF CONFRONTATION BETWEEN THE USA AND RUSSIA

Since 2009 Russia has increased its military forces in Abkhazia and South Ossetia and pursued the policy of ‘creeping annexation in the occupied territories of Georgia. Today, 20% of Georgian territories are occupied by the Russian Federation. The Russian-baked separatists continuously erect barbed-wire border posts in one of the occupied regions of Georgia-South Ossetia and detain Georgian people, under the pretext of ‘illegally crossing the border’. Fundamental rights of the local population are violated daily since the occupants install barbers through people’s houses, gardens, and cultivated lands. Innocent citizens are forced to leave their homes, belongings, and cultivated lands that are left beyond the occupants’ demarcation line. The paper argues that along with other global challenges of the world, the USA-Russia clashes of interests are also found with the Georgian conflicts. While Washington hugely supports Georgia’s territorial integrity and welcomes its Euro-Atlantic aspirations, the Russian Federation, on the contrary, prevents the aforementioned process and directly opposes Georgia’s integration into NATO. The USA condemns Russia’s creeping annexation of Georgian territories and continuously calls on Russia to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of an independent country. Furthermore, the USA-Russia relations have considerably deteriorated following Russia’s military intervention in Georgia and the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states.

Russia’s Neighborhood Policy and Its Eurasian Client States: No Autocracy Export

Do authoritarian regimes engage in active export of their political systems? Or are they primarily concerned about their geopolitical interests? This article explores these questions by examining Russia’s policy towards Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Transnistria. In all three de facto states, Moscow is fully able to dictate election outcomes should it desire to, but, we argue, has increasingly refrained from doing so. These client states are unlikely to attempt to escape from Russia’s tutelage; and with its geopolitical interests fully ensured, Russia appears willing to grant them latitude. We then ask whether these findings can be extrapolated to serve as a template for understanding Russia’s policy towards its client states more generally, discussing Moscow’s reactions to attempted regime change in Armenia and Belarus.

ПУТИ ИННОВАЦИОННОГО РАЗВИТИЯ СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА ЮЖНОЙ ОСЕТИИ

The article examines some aspects of the innovative development of agriculture in the Repub-lic of South Ossetia. A set of measures and directions for the formation of the innovation system of the Re-public of South Ossetia is proposed. The need to improve the demographic situation in the system of measures for the innovative development of agro-industrial production in modern South Ossetia is shown. The conclusion is substantiated that innovations in order to modernize the production base and infrastructure of the village can act as a factor in the migration attractiveness of agriculture in the region.

КРИЗИСНОЕ РАЗВИТИЕ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННЫХ ОРГАНИЗАЦИЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ЮЖНАЯ ОСЕТИЯ

The development of national agriculture has an organizational and managerial dimension at the macro-, meso- and microlevels. Measurement at the macro level is characterized by the dynamics of such indicators as the number of people employed in agricultural production and the share of the rural population, the share of agricultural products in the structure of GDP, labor productivity in agriculture. The organizational and managerial dimension at the mesolevel gives an idea of the productivity of agricultural production in a spatial context. Finally, at the micro level, an assessment of the organizational effectiveness of the management of a separate agricultural enterprise is given. The article is devoted to the analysis and assessment of the organizational potential for the development of agriculture in the Republic of South Ossetia in 2016–2020 in the context of Tskhinvali, Dzau, Znauri and Leningor it regions.

ФИНАНСОВАЯ ОСНОВА ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ СОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ЮЖНАЯ ОСЕТИЯ

The features of the formation of the revenue side of the state budget of the Republic of South Ossetia are considered. The main items of expenditure of the republic, which is in a difficult economic situation, as a partially recognized state by the world community, have been revealed. The trends and problems in the development of the economy of the Republic of South Ossetia are revealed. Institutional reserves are proposed that contribute to an increase in the own income of a young state, as well as mechanisms and tools for creating a favorable investment climate, taking into account the geographical location and population.

Analiza spoljne politike Ruske Federacije prema Gruziji kroz prizmu neoimperijalnih regionalnih ambicija

The Caucasus, dubbed "the Eurasian Balkans" by Zbigniew Brzezinski, or "the near abroad" (bližnee zarubež'e) by the Russians, is both a region of strategic interest for Russia, and a space where the Russian foreign policymaking was clearly manifested, Russia's main goal being to establish regional dominance and discourage the Western influence in the region. Using comparative and content analysis and relying on the theory of offensive structural realism, the paper will discuss the foreign policy of the Russian Federation towards Georgia in the years after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Analysing the case studies of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, the paper seeks to show how Russia's neo-imperial foreign policy has been shaped, and how Russia's foreign policy has shifted in accordance with the part of the Caucasus involved in the conflict and the degree of anti-Russian influence in it. The results show that Russia carefully created the conditions and chose the moment to use the conflict, i.e., the secession on the Georgian soil, to position itself as a regional hegemon.

Environmental risks in the development of the regional socio-economic system and ensuring the environmental safety of Russian regions and the Republic of South Ossetia

In recent decades, the rapidly developing industrial revolution has overshadowed environmental aspects. At the same time, the environmental factor can become a catalyst for negative trends associated with man-made disasters and the health of the region’s population. In this regard, the most important function of public authorities is the development of a set of legislative acts providing for environmental safety, considering the interests of economic entities in the context of effective functioning, ensuring control over compliance with this legislation. In the presented article, the authors analyse the experience of legislative regulation in the field of environmental protection in the Russian Federation. The authors examine in detail the environmental risks in the North Caucasian Federal District and the Republic of South Ossetia, which are closely linked by economic relations and which have many similar problems.

Unrecognized states: legal and economic aspects

Introduction. The transformational processes that are taking place in the world lead to the creation of new relationships and institutions. The problem is the creation of an unrecognized or partially recognized States is happening everywhere and is still relevant for many centuries. Their emergence is caused by political, economic, ethnic, cross-cultural and other problems, ignoring which can lead to social explosions and military conflicts. Currently, no territory is immune from the possibility of external incitement of conflicts, which has become possible in the context of digitalization of society.Materials and methods. In the course of the research, a set of approaches and methods that are used in the framework of legal science was applied – General, General scientific, special methods of cognition: dialectical, logical,formal legal. The specificity of the research subject led to the use of a comparative approach.Results. The authors compare socio-economic indicators of the Republic of Abkhazia, the Republic of South Ossetia, the people’s Republic of Karabakh, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, the Luhansk people’s Republic and the Donetsk people’s Republic. Special attention is paid to comparing the size of territories and the population of unrecognized States before and after the conflict. Analytical information is provided on the formation of the budget of unrecognized republics and the number of people who have adopted the citizenship of the Russian Federation.Discussion and conclusion. The authors conclude that unrecognized States have all the opportunities not only to preserve, but also to increase their economic potential.

ТЮРКСКИЕ ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ В ТОПОНИМИИ ЮЖНОЙ ОСЕТИИ

In this paper, the Turkic elements in the toponymy of South Ossetia were analyzed. Most of these elements have never been previously studied. A brief survey of the history of the study of Turkisms in the toponymy of the region was performed. It was revealed that the proportion of South Ossetian Turkisms is very insignificant: they account for less than 1% of the total number of toponyms of South Ossetia. Here, it should be emphasized that the study of South Ossetian toponymy and, in particular, Turkisms is at the early stage and, therefore, other Turkisms may be discovered in the future. In the toponymy of North Ossetia, there are many more Turkisms, which is explained by the direct Ossetian-Turkic contacts in the North Caucasus without the participation of the ancestors of South Ossetians. A total of 20 toponyms, all borrowed from the Turkic languages, were analyzed. These are mainly names associated with livestock life, as well as names reflecting the realities of mountain landscapes and water objects. The identified Turkisms in the toponymy of South Ossetia, with rare exceptions, do not occur in the toponymy or dialects of North Ossetia, thereby indicating their independent appearance due to the partial infiltration of the Turkic ethnic element into the territory of South Ossetia.