Southeast Norway Research Articles

Suicide in children and adolescents: A case report of the possible suicide of a 7 year old girl and presentation of data from a forensic autopsy material in Norway

Abstract The present paper reports a 7 year old girl’s death by hanging. The forensic investigation disclosed death most likely to be self-inflicted, either an act of suicide, subsidiary a case of accidental asphyxia from a child’s play. A review of forensic autopsy records from southeast Norway during the years 1984-2012 was performed. Totally 116 deaths among children and adolescents < 18 years of age were classified as either suicide or as “undetermined - suicide likely” subsequent to post-mortem examination. The most common suicidal methods were hanging (46%), the use of firearms (24%), jumping in front of a train (11%) and drug intake / intoxication (8%). Though rarely observed in children < 12 years of age, suicide is a common cause of sudden death in adolescents, and there is evidence that the extent of the problem is unceasing. The paper highlights the value of forensic medical examination and crime scene reenactment in the evaluation of the manner of death in obscure cases.

The prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in questing Ixodes ricinus ticks in Norway

Norway represents the northern limit in the geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus ticks in Europe. During the last decade an expansion of the range of this tick further north and at higher altitudes has been detected. This could affect the spread of Borre­lia burgdorferi sensu lato pathogens in new territories and increase the risk of human infection in the country. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. in I. ricinus ticks in different localities of Norway. Ticks were collected in 24 locations from northwest to southeast Norway during spring– summer 2004 and 2006–2008. We used fla gene as a target for amplification of spirochete DNA. Multiplex PCR based on ospA gene of B. burgdorferi s.l. was used for species identification. The heterogeneity of B. garinii strains was investigated using ospA -based sequencing analysis. B. burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 171 (7.2%) out of 2360 I. ricinus ticks analyzed. The infection rate varied from zero to 32% in the investigated locations. Infection rate in adults (11.9%) was significantly higher than in nymphs (4.7%). The overall infection rate in ticks from western Norway (4.0%) was significantly lower than in those from southern Norway (10%). Four B. burgdorferi s.l. genospecies were identified, and the most common was B. afzelii (71.9.0%), followed by B. garinii (12.9%), B. burgdorferi s.s. (7%) and B. valaisiana (1.2%). A total of eight (4.8%) of the infected ticks harboured mixed infections . Phylogenetic relationship between B. garinii strains and their cor­respondence to OspA serotype types was compared with the sequences registered in GenBank database. Five genotypes of B. garinii derived from ticks were identified. The most frequent was OspA type 6.

Verification of traffic-induced soil compaction after long-term ploughing and 10 years minimum tillage on clay loam soil in South-East Norway

Grain yields are presented from a 10-year field trial with four tillage regimes (annual ploughing, harrowing only, ploughing/harrowing alternate years and minimum tillage) on clay loam. We also present soil physical analyses and use the compaction verification tool (CVT) to assess compaction on plots with annual ploughing and minimum tillage, after using slurry tankers with contrasting wheel loads (4.1 Mg, 6.6 Mg) and wheeling intensities (1×/10×) in the 11th trial year, and yields monitored two years after compaction. Winter wheat yields in the period before compaction were strongly affected by tillage, with annual ploughing giving on average 24% higher yield than direct drilling. Both wheat and oats were far less affected in treatments with harrowing only or ploughing/harrowing alternate years, on average within 6% of annual ploughing. Yields after compaction were affected by both previous tillage and compaction intensity. In the first year, single wheeling after annual ploughing gave 23% yield reduction with 4.1 Mg wheel load and 28% reduction with 6.6 Mg wheel load, whilst multiple wheeling gave 14% reduction at 6.6 Mg wheel load. Yield reductions after minimum tillage ranged from 63% (single wheeling with 4.1 Mg) to 100% (multiple wheeling with 6.6 Mg). Similar trends were found in the second year. The soil physical data indicated that all wheeling led to changes in bulk density, pore sizes and permeability in both topsoil and subsoil on both sampled tillage plots. However, effects in the subsoil were partly masked by the soil's high initial bulk density, partly due to its high clay content. The CVT, which plots air capacity against hydraulic conductivity, suggested some harmful compaction on both plots, with the minimum tillage plot being less affected than the ploughed plot. However, yield results did not support this conclusion, indicating that other factors limited yields on the minimum tilled plot.

Traffic-induced soil compaction during manure spreading in spring in South-East Norway

The objective of this study was to evaluate long-term effects of two tillage regimes (ploughing and minimum tillage) on the bearing capacity of a clay rich soil, by using two different slurry tankers (4.1 and 6.6 Mg wheel load) and contrasting wheeling frequencies (1 and 10 passes). The soil strength was assessed by laboratory measurements of the precompression stress (Pc) at −6 kPa in topsoil (20 cm) and subsoil (40 and 60 cm) samples. Stress propagation, elastic and plastic deformation during wheeling were measured in the field with combined stress-state-transducer and displacement transducer system. Results presented in this study show that minimum tilled soil had 74% higher Pc than ploughed soil in the upper soil layer, whilst differences were less distinct in subsoil. Wheeling increased Pc at all soil depths. Compared to ploughing, higher strength in the upper layer of minimum tilled soil led on average to 60% and 48% reductions in the major principal stress with the use of the light and heavy slurry tanker, respectively. The extent of the major principal stress was dependent on the ground pressure in the topsoil. The first pass of a wheel caused the greatest damage in some cases, but all wheelings led to accumulative plastic deformation in both vertical and horizontal directions. Wheeling with high intensity would have exceeded Pc in all cases when soil was at a matric potential of −6 kPa. The results show that soil water content is an important factor influencing bearing capacity. Drier soil (−100 kPa), in combination with minimum tillage, limited the occurrence of stresses exceeding Pc in the upper soil layer.

Grain yields and soil properties on loam soil after three decades with conservation tillage in southeast Norway

Four tillage trials have been performed on moderately well-drained loam soil in southeast Norway for 30–37 years (mean 34), comparing reduced tillage (8–10 cm in spring) with autumn ploughing (25 cm). In some years, additional stubble harrowing in autumn (10–12 cm) was compared with harrowing only in spring. Weeds were controlled with herbicides. Straw residues were retained after around 1990 and no fungicides were used. Grain yields are reported for the last nine years, and compared with earlier years. Results are presented for a number of soil properties measured in recent years. Autumn harrowing gave no consistent yield benefit over harrowing only in spring. There was little difference between ploughed and unploughed treatments in mean grain yields over the whole trial period, and the variability between years was similar in both tillage systems. Relative grain yields, calculated as yields obtained without ploughing in percentage of those obtained with ploughing, appeared to be normally distributed around 100%. Responses were often positive in dry years, and negative in wet years. Reduced tillage gave higher P and K concentrations near the soil surface and slightly lower concentrations in deeper layers. There was little change in their levels, relative to earlier findings. Changes in bulk density and total porosity were mostly attributable to changes in the stratification of organic matter. Reduced tillage increased porosity at 4–8 cm depth and decreased it slightly at 24–28 cm, but there was no change in the intermediate layer. The moisture-holding capacity of the soil was altered little by reduced tillage, and soil aeration properties were satisfactory at all three depths measured. There was no change in the total amount of organic matter stored within the topsoil, despite marked changes in its distribution. Reduced tillage gave significant increases in aggregate stability and an indication of greater earthworm activity.

Prevalence and clinical characteristics of adult polymyositis and dermatomyositis; data from a large and unselected Norwegian cohort

ObjectivesThe occurrence of polymyositis (PM) and dermatomyositis (DM) in the general population is largely unknown and unbiased data on clinical and laboratory features in PM/DM are missing. Here, we aim...

Environmental factors influencing mercury speciation in Subarctic and Boreal lakes

Environmental drivers of total mercury (TotHg) concentrations, methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations, and MeHg fractions (a proxy for methylation potential, expressed as %MeHg) were assessed in a synoptic study of 51 lakes in southeast (Boreal) and northeast (Subarctic) Norway. Concentrations of TotHg and MeHg ranged between 0.5–6.6ng/L and <0.02–0.70ng/L, respectively. The lakes span wide ranges of explanatory environmental variables, including water chemistry, catchment characteristics, climate conditions, and atmospheric deposition of Hg, sulphur and nitrogen (N). Dissolved organic matter (DOM), measured as total organic carbon (TOC), was the variable most strongly correlated with TotHg (r2=0.76) and MeHg (r2=0.64) concentrations. Lakes in the Subarctic region had significantly lower TotHg and MeHg concentrations, and %MeHg than lakes in the Boreal region (p<0.01), implying a lower aquatic food web exposure of aqueous Hg species in Subarctic Norway than in the Boreal lakes. Statistical modelling (partial least squares) using data from the Boreal lakes produced models explaining 82%, 75% and 50% of the spatial variation of TotHg and MeHg concentrations and %MeHg, respectively. After TOC, the most significant explanatory variables were N availability, base cation status, and lake and catchment size. We conclude that a key process driving TotHg concentrations is DOM as a transport vector, while the role of DOM for MeHg and %MeHg is likely related to a combination of transport and DOM as a substrate for methylation. Also, negative correlations between MeHg, and catchment and lake size are consistent with in-lake and in-stream de-methylation processes. The statistical relationship suggests that N availability exerts a positive contribution on concentrations of MeHg and %MeHg.

Detection of specific IgG antibodies in blood donors and tick-borne encephalitis virus in ticks within a non-endemic area in southeast Norway

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is an emerging tick-borne disease in Europe. In Norway, the first TBE case occurred in 1997, and since then 1-14 cases have been detected annually along the southern coast. No TBE cases have yet been notified from the eastern coastal area. This study was conducted to assess the need for diagnostic tests and vaccine recommendation for this part of Norway. Four hundred and sixty-one blood donors living in the county of Østfold were enrolled. After informed consent was obtained, the participants submitted a blood sample and filled out a questionnaire regarding tick bites, outdoor activities, and Flavivirus vaccines and diseases. Ixodes ricinus ticks were collected from the immediate vicinity and were examined in pools of 10 for TBE virus. Eight human samples were TBE virus IgG-positive by ELISA and 5 of these samples were confirmed positive by neutralization test. Excluding the 2 samples from participants who had reported previous TBE vaccination, this shows a seroprevalence among blood donors of 0.65%. The existence of TBEV in the region was verified in nymphs of Ixodes ricinus by a prevalence of 0.14%. The seroprevalence of TBE virus IgG and the TBE virus detected in ticks, indicate that TBE cases could occasionally occur in the area. The results should be made available to health care personnel to raise awareness for preventative measures.

Loss of Association of REEP2 with Membranes Leads to Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia

Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are clinically and genetically heterogeneous neurological conditions. Their main pathogenic mechanisms are thought to involve alterations in endomembrane trafficking, mitochondrial function, and lipid metabolism. With a combination of whole-genome mapping and exome sequencing, we identified three mutations in REEP2 in two families with HSP: a missense variant (c.107T>A [p.Val36Glu]) that segregated in the heterozygous state in a family with autosomal-dominant inheritance and a missense change (c.215T>A [p.Phe72Tyr]) that segregated in trans with a splice site mutation (c.105+3G>T) in a family with autosomal-recessive transmission. REEP2 belongs to a family of proteins that shape the endoplasmic reticulum, an organelle that was altered in fibroblasts from an affected subject. In vitro, the p.Val36Glu variant in the autosomal-dominant family had a dominant-negative effect; it inhibited the normal binding of wild-type REEP2 to membranes. The missense substitution p.Phe72Tyr, in the recessive family, decreased the affinity of the mutant protein for membranes that, together with the splice site mutation, is expected to cause complete loss of REEP2 function. Our findings illustrate how dominant and recessive inheritance can be explained by the effects and nature of mutations in the same gene. They have also important implications for genetic diagnosis and counseling in clinical practice because of the association of various modes of inheritance to this new clinico-genetic entity.

Modelling the cost of providing ambulance services

The aim of this paper is to study how regional demography and accessibility patterns influence the cost of providing ambulance services. A secondary aim is to project future costs and demand for ambulance services based on population projections. We use data from south-east Norway, an area with both urban and rural areas. Our results show that accessibility patterns, urbanisation and demography are important factors in determining costs. Furthermore, an ageing population and an ongoing process of urbanisation will have an impact on both the demand for ambulance transport and the cost of providing these services.

Long-term effects of supplementary feeding of moose on browsing impact at a landscape scale

Supplementary, or diversionary feeding of wildlife is a common management practice, increasingly used to reduce or divert herbivore impact from sensitive habitats, forestry or agriculture. The landscape-scale spatial distribution of herbivory in relation to diversionary feeding is relevant to wildlife and land management, yet has never been quantified. We considered multiple hypotheses, based on central-place foraging theory, to investigate how landscape-scale browsing impact changed as a function of distance from feeding stations and thereby test the effectiveness of diversionary feeding. We assessed the landscape-scale browsing impact of moose by quantifying browsing patterns and moose density in commercially-valuable young Scots pine stands in an area of South-East Norway with a long history of winter feeding. We also used positions from GPS-collared female moose to investigate the spatial distribution of individuals across the landscape. Moose density and browsing impact at the local spatial scale (<1km) followed an exponential decrease with distance from diversionary feeding stations. However, at the landscape scale (1–10km), browsing impact did not show any relationship with distance to feeding stations. Leader stem browsing on Scots pine trees was high at both the local (68±12%) and landscape (59±8%) scales. In addition, browsing on commercially valuable Norway spruce, which is normally avoided by moose, was locally high around feeding stations. Long-term diversionary feeding of moose is ineffective in diverting browsing impact from young pine stands at the landscape scale, as currently practiced. Browsing on commercially-important tree species was sufficiently high that economic consequences could be expected. To avoid further conflict, we suggest a combination of reducing moose density and increasing the availability of natural or higher quality supplementary forage.

Approaching a Mortuary Monument Landscape Using GIS- and ALS-Generated 3D Models

In this study we examined how a GIS-based viewshed analysis that integrates movement could be used to provide substantial knowledge about the placement of Bronze Age grave cairns along the coast in a study area in Brunlanes, Larvik in South-East Norway. Additionally we studied the significance of digital elevation model quality for the interpretation of the viewshed analysis and for encluding palaeo-environmental changes (uplifting of land) in the analysis. Two sets of viewshed analyses were carried out from seven potential sailing routes based on a 20-metre and one-metre resolution DEM. The results indicate that the grave cairns were placed on the skyline in order to stand out more clearly to observers approaching from the sea, and that the DEM quality is of importance for the interpretation. Taking palaeo-environmental issues into consideration, we found that the effects of the uplifting of land were proven to affect visibility whereas vegetation was not an obstacle.

State Formation, Administrative Areas, and Thing Sites in the Borgarthing Law Province, Southeast Norway

This paper discusses some consequences of the state-formation processes on the thing organization in the Borgarthing law province in southeast Norway, between the 11th and 14th centuries. The aim is to identify and discuss thing sites in relation to social organization and regionalization processes related to power structures and the emerging supra-regional kingdom. The study explores two spatial levels—a regional level and a lower administrative level—through a case study of an Old Norse skipreia unit. Questions about territoriality, stability, and change will be discussed, particularly regarding the king's shifting influence in the Borgarthing law province.

Monitoring spruce volume and biomass with InSAR data from TanDEM-X

There is a need for monitoring methods for forest volume, biomass and carbon based on satellite remote sensing. In the present study we tested interferometric X-band SAR (InSAR) from the Tandem-X mission. The aim of the study was to describe how accurate volume and biomass could be estimated from InSAR height and test whether the relationships were curvilinear or not. The study area was a spruce dominated forest in southeast Norway. We selected 28 stands in which we established 192 circular sample plots of 250m2, accurately positioned by a Differential Global Positioning System (dGPS). Plot level data on stem volume and aboveground biomass were derived from field inventory. Stem volume ranged from zero to 596m3/ha, and aboveground biomass up to 338t/ha. We generated 2 Digital Surface Models (DSMs) from InSAR processing of two co-registered, HH-polarized TanDEM-X image pairs – one ascending and one descending pair. We used a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) from airborne laser scanning (ALS) as a reference and derived a 10m×10m Canopy Height Model (CHM), or InSAR height model. We assigned each plot to the nearest 10m×10m InSAR height pixel. We applied a nonlinear, mixed model for the volume and biomass modeling, and from a full model we removed effects with a backward stepwise approach. InSAR height was proportional to volume and aboveground biomass, where a 1m increase in InSAR height corresponded to a volume increase of 23m3/ha and a biomass increase of 14t/ha. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values were 43–44% at the plot level and 19–20% at the stand level.

Exploring Norwegian forest owner's intentions to provide harvest residues for bioenergy

The large biomass resource in the Norwegian woods may contribute considerably to the development of a more sustainable energy system. A more complete tree harvest is being promoted, where harvest residues are utilised to provide bioenergy. Little research has addressed the intentions of forest owners towards harvesting forest residues.A survey of non-industrial private forest owners in two municipalities located in the south east of Norway was conducted in order to understand their attitudes and intentions to provide harvest residues for bioenergy production. The results showed that forest owners would be willing to supply harvest residues: about 40% of the respondents were highly in favour and almost 70% expressed a positive opinion.A factor analysis of the attitudinal statements resulted in four main factors of which three were found to significantly affect the intention in a regression analysis. The first factor was related to the beneficial effects of harvest residues, the second covered negative (mainly environmental) effects, and the third covered the positive effects upon forest management.The social influences seemed to have two distinct dimensions: personal relationships (e.g., other forest owners, neighbours and family) and professional interactions (e.g., governmental authorities). While the former had a significant effect on intentions, the latter did not. Finally, socioeconomic variables (gender, age, and municipality) did not influence the intention to deliver harvest residues.

Survival and Causes of Death in an Unselected and Complete Cohort of Norwegian Patients with Systemic Sclerosis

To determine survival and causes of death in an unselected and complete cohort of Norwegian patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc) compared to the background population. Multiple methods were used to identify every patient with SSc living in southeast Norway, with a denominator population of 2,707,012, between 1999 and 2009. All patients who met either the American College of Rheumatology criteria or the Medsger and LeRoy criteria for SSc were included. Every patient was matched for sex and age with 15 healthy controls drawn from the national population registry. Vital status at January 1, 2010, was provided for patients and controls by the national population registry. Causes of death were obtained from death certificates and by chart review. Forty-three (14%) of 312 patients with SSc died during the study period. The standardized mortality rate (SMR) was estimated to be 2.03 for the entire cohort and 5.33 for the subgroup with diffuse cutaneous (dc) SSc. The 5- and 10-year survival rates were 91% and 70%, respectively, for dcSSc and 98% and 93% for limited cutaneous (lc) SSc. Causes of death were related to SSc in 24/43 (56%) patients, mostly cardiopulmonary diseases (n = 13), including pulmonary hypertension (n = 8). Factors associated with fatal outcome included male sex, dcSSc, pulmonary hypertension, and interstitial lung disease. Compared to the Norwegian background population, our cohort of 312 unselected patients with SSc had decreased survival. The survival rates observed were, however, better than those previously reported from SSc referral centers.

The old trout Salmo trutta in the pond

The last of 12 brown trout Salmo trutta stocked in a small pond in south-east Norway in 1979 were caught in July 2011. These fish represent a curiosity regarding longevity and growth pattern, and ageing from otoliths was consistent with the known life history of this specimen. Despite almost total stagnation in growth since the age of 16 years, the testes were fully developed.

Soil erosion and phosphorus losses under variable land use as simulated by the INCA‐P model

AbstractWe describe the calibration and application of the Integrated Catchment Phosphorus model (INCA‐P) to determine the key factors controlling run‐off, sediment and phosphorus (P) losses from a small catchment in southeast Norway. The INCA‐P model was parameterized for five land use categories: forest, grassland, urban areas and agricultural areas with and without autumn tillage. Monitoring data from the Norwegian Agricultural Environmental Monitoring Program were used for model calibration at the outlet of the catchment (Skuterud). Available measurements and local expert knowledge were used as reference data on sediment and P loss specific to land uses. We successfully applied the INCA‐P model to Nordic conditions: the Nash–Sutcliffe (N‐S) statistic, calculated for the calibration period, was 0.82, 0.71 and 0.67 for run‐off, sediment and P losses, respectively. For the validation period, the sediment and P losses were slightly overestimated. Scatter plots of observed versus modelled values of run‐off, sediment and total P losses indicated that in some cases, the INCA‐P model did not adequately represent extreme situations. It is likely that the modelled system behaves in a different way under moderate and large rainfall events, and the model does not represent these. We applied the model to five land use change scenarios to evaluate the possibilities for reducing particle‐bound P loads at the catchment outlet. Our results indicate that land use change can lead to more significant reduction in particle and P losses than changes in agricultural practices. The most favourable scenario for freshwater ecosystems would be afforestation: changing half of the agricultural areas to forest would reduce sediment and P losses by 44 and 40%, respectively. Changes in agricultural practice could also improve the situation, especially by reducing areas with autumn tillage to a minimum.

18 The quality of care for inpatients with inflammatory bowel disease in the UK over a six year period

18 The quality of care for inpatients with inflammatory bowel disease in the UK over a six year period

Temporal trends of Al, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn concentrations in streams draining agricultural catchments of the south-eastern Norway

In Norway, water quality of small streams draining agricultural catchments has been monitored since 1993 by the Agricultural and Environmental Monitoring Program. This article attempted to examine the concentration levels, temporal dynamics and long-term trends (1993–2009 and 1996–2009) of Al, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn in streams draining the catchment areas of Skuterud (4.5 km2) and Mørdre (6.8 km2), located in south-east Norway. In the Mørdre stream, Al, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn all showed statistically significant downward trends (p<0.05), whilst in the Skuterud stream only Al and Fe showed statistically downward significance (p<0.05). The general declining trends of metal concentrations are most likely associated with reduction of acid rain deposition in southern Norway. In spite of this declining trends, over the 14–17 years of monitoring mean monthly concentrations of total Al (2.0–3.2 mg L−1), Fe (1.3–2.5 mg L−1) and Cu (8.9–26.1 µg L−1) in Skuterud and Mørdre streams, respectively exceeded the limits of the Norwegian Water Framework Directives, whereas the concentrations of Mn (22.3–40.8 µg L−1) and Zn (13.1–99.4 µg L−1) fell within the range of desired limits. Of the total water samples analysed from Skuterud (n=370) and Mørdre streams (n=255), nearly 80–84%, 70–87% and 79–96% were above the desired limits for Al (0.2 mg L−1), Fe (0.3 mg L−1) and Cu (3 µg L−1), respectively. In 2011, water analysis from drainage of forest soils (in Skuterud catchment) measured total Al: 0.42–0.79 mg L−1 and total Fe: 0.84–1.0 mg L−1 which were two to three folds greater than the desired limits. In general, weak correlations between runoff and concentrations of the metals in the streams were noted. Future research should focus on identifying the sources of Al, Fe and Cu and management interventions of elevated metal inputs to Skuterud and Mørdre streams.