South China Tiger Research Articles

Analysis of variable sites between two complete South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) mitochondrial genomes

In order to investigate the mitochondrial genome of Panthera tigris amoyensis, two South China tigers (P25 and P27) were analyzed following 15 cymt-specific primer sets. The entire mtDNA sequence was found to be 16,957 bp and 17,001 bp long for P25 and P27 respectively, and this difference in length between P25 and P27 occurred in the number of tandem repeats in the RS-3 segment of the control region. The structural characteristics of complete P. t. amoyensis mitochondrial genomes were also highly similar to those of P. uncia. Additionally, the rate of point mutation was only 0.3% and a total of 59 variable sites between P25 and P27 were found. Out of the 59 variable sites, 6 were located in 6 different tRNA genes, 6 in the 2 rRNA genes, 7 in non-coding regions (one located between tRNA-Asn and tRNA-Tyr and six in the D-loop), and 40 in 10 protein-coding genes. COI held the largest amount of variable sites (9 sites) and Cytb contained the highest variable rate (0.7%) in the complete sequences. Moreover, out of the 40 variable sites located in 10 protein-coding genes, 12 sites were nonsynonymous.

A new method for DNA extraction from feces and hair shafts of the South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis)

It is commonly known that tigers (Panthera tigris) groom themselves by licking their coats, which leads to an abundance of hairs in their feces. These hairs are designated specially as "fecal hairs". In our study, in order to explore fecal hairs potential as a DNA source for genetic analysis, 55 fecal hair samples were collected from 23 captive South China tigers (P. t. amoyensis). According to the amplification of mitochondrial primers loop F and loop R, DNA quality of noninvasive samples were grouped into three grades: grade I-the highest-quality DNA, grade II--high-quality DNA, and grade III--poor-quality DNA. No failed amplifications on microsatellite primers and only 0.27% genotyping errors occurred with grade I fecal hair DNA, as compared with 9.4% failed amplifications on microsatellite primers and 9.5% genotyping errors with grade II fecal hair DNA. It was found that 25.45% of fecal hair DNA was grade I and 65.45 and 10.00% of fecal hair DNA were grades II and III, respectively, as compared with 4.35% grade I fecal DNA and 34.78 and 60.87% grades II and III fecal DNA, respectively. Thus, higher-quality DNA can be extracted from fecal hairs than feces. In addition, DNA could be extracted from hair shafts of tigers and a minimum of 2000 hair shafts were required for visible DNA bands on a 1% agarose gel. These findings demonstrate that fecal hairs may serve as a convenient and reliable genomic DNA source for genotype analysis.

Isolation of Laribacter hongkongensis, a novel bacterium associated with gastroenteritis, from Chinese tiger frog

Laribacter hongkongensis is a recently discovered novel bacterium associated with community-acquired gastroenteritis. Although the bacterium has been isolated from freshwater fish and natural freshwater environments, it is not known if other freshwater animals could also be a source of L. hongkongensis. In a surveillance study on freshwater food animals (other than fish) in Hong Kong, L. hongkongensis was isolated from eight of 10 Chinese tiger frogs ( Hoplobatrachus chinensis), a widespread frog species commonly consumed in China and southeast Asia. The large intestine was the site with the highest recovery rate, followed by the small intestine and stomach. None of the 30 Malaysian prawns, 20 pieces of sand shrimp, 20 Chinese mystery snails or 10 Chinese soft-shelled turtles was found to harbor the bacterium. Among the eight positive frogs, a total of 26 isolates of L. hongkongensis, confirmed by phenotypic tests and PCR, were obtained. As with human, freshwater fish and natural water isolates, a heterogeneous population of L. hongkongensis in frogs was identified by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, with 6 different patterns among the 26 isolates and a single frog often carrying different strains. The present report represents the first to describe the isolation of L. hongkongensis from amphibians. The high isolation rate and genetic heterogeneity of L. hongkongensis among the Chinese tiger frogs suggested that these animals are also natural reservoir for the bacterium. Caution should be exercised in handling and cooking these frogs.

Craniometric variation in the tiger ( Panthera tigris): Implications for patterns of diversity, taxonomy and conservation

Patterns of geographical variation in tigers are reviewed extensively by a morphometric analysis based on 273 skulls of certain wild origin. The following principal observations emerging from this investigation are found: 1. Modern tigers contain two basic forms: the mainland Asia tiger and the Sunda Island tiger. They are differentiated markedly in skull morphology as well as other morphological characters, the characteristic skull shape and small body size in Java/Bali tigers can be interpreted as adaptational responses to a particular island landscape type and prey species fauna, an evolutionary process known as insular dwarfism. 2. The Sumatran tiger ( P.t. sumatrae) probably represents a hybrid of mainland and Island tigers, which originated from mainland Southeast Asia, colonized Indonesia and hybridized with the Sunda island tigers (Java tiger) during the late Pleistocene, and was subsequently completely isolated from both the mainland Southeast Asia and Java/Bali populations. 3. Among the mainland Asia tigers, the Amur or Siberian tiger is the most distinct; India, Indochinese and South China tigers are craniometrically distinguishable on average, but with clear overlaps; the Caspian tiger, on the other hand, is indistinguishable from other mainland forms and extensively overlaps with both the Northern and Southern Asia subspecies. 4. Most proportional craniometric differences among tigers observed from this study are mainly allometric; the pattern of craniometric variation in mainland tigers is clearly clinal; craniometric variation and sexual dimorphism are closely related. 5. Skull morphometric characters are quite effective for discriminating major tiger geographical populations, but further analysis using other phenetic craniodental characters (shape of sagittal crest, degree of convexity of the frontal, endocranial volume, detailed carnassial morphology) as well as molecular genetic sources, rather than this purely metric study, would certainly be of considerable value in understanding the evolutionary relationships among mainland Asia tigers and their appropriate taxonomic designations.

Attitudes Toward Consumption and Conservation of Tigers in China

A heated debate has recently emerged between tiger farmers and conservationists about the potential consequences of lifting the ban on trade in farmed tiger products in China. This debate has caused unfounded speculation about the extent of the potential market for tiger products. To fill this knowledge gap, we surveyed 1880 residents from a total of six Chinese cities to understand Urban Chinese tiger consumption behavior, knowledge of trade issues and attitudes towards tiger conservation. We found that 43% of respondents had consumed some product alleged to contain tiger parts. Within this user-group, 71% said that they preferred wild products over farmed ones. The two predominant products used were tiger bone plasters (38%) and tiger bone wine (6.4%). 88% of respondents knew that it was illegal to buy or sell tiger products, and 93% agreed that a ban in trade of tiger parts was necessary to conserve wild tigers. These results indicate that while Urban Chinese people are generally supportive of tiger conservation, there is a huge residual demand for tiger products that could resurge if the ban on trade in tiger parts is lifted in China. We suspect that the current supply of the market is predominantly met by fakes or substitutes branded as tiger medicines, but not listing tiger as an ingredient. We suggest that the Traditional Chinese Medicine community should consider re-branding these products as bone-healing medicines in order to reduce the residual demand for real tiger parts over the long-term. The lifting of the current ban on trade in farmed tiger parts may cause a surge in demand for wild tiger parts that consumers say are better. Because of the low input costs associated with poaching, wild-sourced parts would consistently undercut the prices of farmed tigers that could easily be laundered on a legal market. We therefore recommend that the Chinese authorities maintain the ban on trade in tiger parts, and work to improve the enforcement of the existing ban.

Subspecies Genetic Assignments of Worldwide Captive Tigers Increase Conservation Value of Captive Populations

Tigers (Panthera tigris) are disappearing rapidly from the wild, from over 100,000 in the 1900s to as few as 3000. Javan (P.t. sondaica), Bali (P.t. balica), and Caspian (P.t. virgata) subspecies are extinct, whereas the South China tiger (P.t. amoyensis) persists only in zoos. By contrast, captive tigers are flourishing, with 15,000-20,000 individuals worldwide, outnumbering their wild relatives five to seven times. We assessed subspecies genetic ancestry of 105 captive tigers from 14 countries and regions by using Bayesian analysis and diagnostic genetic markers defined by a prior analysis of 134 voucher tigers of significant genetic distinctiveness. We assigned 49 tigers to one of five subspecies (Bengal P.t. tigris, Sumatran P.t. sumatrae, Indochinese P.t. corbetti, Amur P.t. altaica, and Malayan P.t. jacksoni tigers) and determined 52 had admixed subspecies origins. The tested captive tigers retain appreciable genomic diversity unobserved in their wild counterparts, perhaps a consequence of large population size, century-long introduction of new founders, and managed-breeding strategies to retain genetic variability. Assessment of verified subspecies ancestry offers a powerful tool that, if applied to tigers of uncertain background, may considerably increase the number of purebred tigers suitable for conservation management.

A Study of the Types and Characteristics of Chinese Tiger Plays

A Study of the Types and Characteristics of Chinese Tiger Plays

South China tiger cub born in Africa

South China tiger cub born in Africa

Sustainability of the South China tiger: implications of inbreeding depression and introgression

The South China tiger (Panther tigris amoyensis) is critically endangered with 73 remaining individuals living in captivity, all derived from six wild founders since 1963. The population shows a low level of juvenile survivorship and reproductive difficulties, and faces a huge conservation challenge. In this study, inbreeding depression and genetic diversity decline were examined by using pedigree data and 17 microsatellites. The constant B, which is related to the number of lethal equivalents, was estimated to be 0 for the offspring of noninbred parents, but was >0 for the offspring of inbred parents and for all offspring. Percentage of successfully breeding tigers inversely correlated with inbreeding level (r = −0.626, α = 0.05). Taken together, these findings suggest the population is suffering from inbreeding depression in juvenile survivorship and fecundity. No significant correlation was detectable for the mean litter size with f of either dams (r = −0.305, α = 0.46) or kittens (r = 0.105, α = 0.71), indicating litter size was not strongly subject to inbreeding depression. The average number of alleles per locus was 4.24 ± 1.03 (SE), but effective number of alleles was only 2.53 ± 0.91. Twenty-one alleles carried by early breeders at 13 loci were absent in the present breeders and potential breeders. Multilocus heterozygosity was inversely correlated with inbreeding levels (r = −0.601, α = 0.004). These findings suggest rapid allelic diversity loss is occurring in this small captive population and that heterozygosity is being lost as it becomes more inbred. Our phylogenetic analysis supports past work indicating introgression from northern Indochinese tigers in the population. As no wild representatives of the South China tiger can be added to the captive population, we may consider the alternate scenario of further introgression in the interest of countering inbreeding depression and declining genetic diversity.

Isolation and characterization of polymorphic tri‐ and tetra‐nucleotide microsatellite loci for the south China tiger Panthera tigris amoyensis

Eleven tri‐ and tetra‐nucleotide microsatellite loci from the south China tiger, Panthera tigris amoyensis, were isolated, and characterized in this paper. Among these microsatellite loci, one locus was monomorphic; among the remaining 10 loci, the number of observed alleles for each locus in 57 individual tigers ranged from four to nine, the expected and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.366 to 0.805 and 0.400 to 0.837, respectively, and the mean polymorphic information content (PIC) was 0.609. Moreover, two loci (F41 and FCA391) were compared between the domestic cat and the south China tiger and differences in their flanking regions were found (5.9% for F41 and 4.8% for FCA391). These 10 polymorphic tri‐ and tetra‐nucleotide microsatellite markers would be very useful in the evaluation of tiger population structure and the genetic relationships among the individual tigers. Wenping Zhang and Zhihe Zhang contributed equally to this paper.

Sequence variation of mitochondrial DNA ND5 in captive South China tigers (Panthera tigris amoyensis)

This paper represents the first study of the genetic diversity of captive South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis by sequence variation in a fragment of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) gene. Two haplotypes (haplotype I and haplotype II) were identified and the captive population had a bias towards haplotype I. This subspecies as a whole demonstrated an extremely low level of genetic diversity with the nucleotide diversity of 0.057±0.021%. The mtDNA ND5 variations detected in the present study could provide significant information to the studbook data of the South China tiger.

Twelve polymorphic microsatellite loci for the South China tigerPanthera tigris amoyensis

AbstractTwelve microsatellite loci were found from genomic DNA‐enriched libraries of the South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis). The number of observed alleles for each locus in 53 individuals ranged from five to 14; the expected and observed heterozygosity was 0.480 to 0.883 and 0.333 to 0.956, respectively; and the mean polymorphic information content (PIC) was 0.729. These markers would be considered a useful tool for the study of genetic variation in South China tiger in the future.

PLoS Biology Issue Image | Vol. 2(12) December 2004

Population genetic analysis provides evidence for six extant subspecies of tiger: the Amur, Indochinese, Malayan, Sumatran, Bengal, and, tentatively, South China tigers. The data will lead to improved conservation strategies for these endangered animals. The cover shows an Amur tiger, one of the last 500 surviving in the Russian Far East. (See Luo, et al.) Image Credit: Photograph by Vasilij Solkin

Phylogeography and Genetic Ancestry of Tigers (Panthera tigris)

Eight traditional subspecies of tiger (Panthera tigris), of which three recently became extinct, are commonly recognized on the basis of geographic isolation and morphological characteristics. To investigate the species' evolutionary history and to establish objective methods for subspecies recognition, voucher specimens of blood, skin, hair, and/or skin biopsies from 134 tigers with verified geographic origins or heritage across the whole distribution range were examined for three molecular markers: (1) 4.0 kb of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence; (2) allele variation in the nuclear major histocompatibility complex class II DRB gene; and (3) composite nuclear microsatellite genotypes based on 30 loci. Relatively low genetic variation with mtDNA, DRB, and microsatellite loci was found, but significant population subdivision was nonetheless apparent among five living subspecies. In addition, a distinct partition of the Indochinese subspecies P. t. corbetti into northern Indochinese and Malayan Peninsula populations was discovered. Population genetic structure would suggest recognition of six taxonomic units or subspecies: (1) Amur tiger P. t. altaica; (2) northern Indochinese tiger P. t. corbetti; (3) South China tiger P. t. amoyensis; (4) Malayan tiger P. t. jacksoni, named for the tiger conservationist Peter Jackson; (5) Sumatran tiger P. t. sumatrae; and (6) Bengal tiger P. t. tigris. The proposed South China tiger lineage is tentative due to limited sampling. The age of the most recent common ancestor for tiger mtDNA was estimated to be 72,000–108,000 y, relatively younger than some other Panthera species. A combination of population expansions, reduced gene flow, and genetic drift following the last genetic diminution, and the recent anthropogenic range contraction, have led to the distinct genetic partitions. These results provide an explicit basis for subspecies recognition and will lead to the improved management and conservation of these recently isolated but distinct geographic populations of tigers.

Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis: field survey of priority tiger reserves

This paper describes results of a Sino-American field survey seeking evidence of South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis in the wild. In 2001 and 2002 field surveys were conducted in eight reserves in five provinces identified by government authorities as habitat most likely to contain tigers. The surveys evaluated and documented evidence for the presence of tigers, tiger prey and habitat disturbance. Approximately 290 km of mountain trails were evaluated. Infrared remote cameras set up in two reserves captured 400 trap days of data. Thirty formal and numerous informal interviews were conducted with villagers to document wildlife knowledge, livestock management practices, and local land and resource use. We found no evidence of wild South China tigers, few prey species, and no livestock depredation by tigers reported in the last 10 years. Forest areas designated as tiger reserves, averaging about 100 km2 in size, are too small to support even a few tigers because commercial tree farms and other habitat conversion is common, and people and their livestock dominate these fragments. While our survey may not have been exhaustive, and there may be a single tiger or a few isolated tigers still remaining at sites we missed, our results strongly indicate that no remaining viable populations of South China tigers occur within its historical range. We conclude that continued field efforts are needed to ascertain whether any wild tigers may yet persist, concurrent with the need to consider options for the eventual recovery and restoration of wild tiger populations from existing captive populations.

Use of oligonucleotide fingerprinting and faecal DNA in identifying the distribution of the Chinese tiger ( Panthera tigris amoyensis Hilzheimer)

Chinese tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis Hilzheimer) was once distributed in the Zhejiang Province, China, but there have not been any tiger sightings in this province since 1985. Fortunately, within the boundaries of the Fengyangshan-baishanzu State Natural Reserve, gamekeepers have found ‘tiger footprints’ and ‘tiger faeces’ many times since 1998. However, these tracks may have been left by the leopard or clouded leopard, which leave similar tracks. The presence of the Chinese tiger in Zhejiang Province was demonstrated using DNA fingerprinting and faecal DNA. The study not only revealed a new habitat for Chinese tigers, Zhejiang Province, but also provided an effective scatology method to identify the distribution of tigers and other wild felines.

Historical change on distribution and quantity of the South-China Tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis)

As one of five survived tiger subspecies, the South-China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) specially disperses in China. This paper dedicated distribution and quantity of wild South-China tiger, and also introduced distribution, quantity and pedigree of captive South-China tiger. In the middle of this century, about several thousands South-China tiger distributed in following provinces, such as Hunan, Jiangxi, Guizhou, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Zhejiang, Hubei, Sichuan, Henan, Shanxi, Shanxi, Gansu. etc. Until now, there are only about 20–30 wild South-China tigers distributing in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Hunan, Sichuan, and 50 captive South-China tiger are raised in zoos of China.

The decline and impending extinction of the South China tiger

The South China tiger Panthera tigris amoyensis is the rarest of the five living tiger subspecies, the most critically threatened and the closest to extinction. No wild South China tigers have been seen by officials for 25 years and one was last brought into captivity 27 years ago. The 19 reserves listed by the Chinese Ministry of Forestry within the presumed range of the tiger are spatially fragmented and most are too small to support viable tiger populations. Over the last 40 years wild populations have declined from thousands to a scattered few. Despite its plight and occasional anecdotal reports of sightings by local people, no intensive field study has been conducted on this tiger subspecies and its habitat. The captive population of about 50 tigers, derived from six wild-caught founders, is genetically impoverished with low reproductive output. Given the size and fragmentation of potential tiger habitat, saving what remains of the captive population may be the only option left to prevent extinction of this tiger subspecies, and even this option is becoming increasingly less probable. This precarious dilemma demands that conservation priorities be re-evaluated and action taken immediately to decide if recovery of the wild population will be possible.

The decline and impending extinction of the South China tiger

The South China tiger Panthera tigris amoyensis is the rarest of the five living tiger subspecies, the most critically threatened and the closest to extinction. No wild South China tigers have been seen by officials for 25 years and one was last brought into captivity 27 years ago. The 19 reserves listed by the Chinese Ministry of Forestry within the presumed range of the tiger are spatially fragmented and most are too small to support viable tiger populations. Over the last 40 years wild populations have declined from thousands to a scattered few. Despite its plight and occasional anecdotal reports of sightings by local people, no intensive field study has been conducted on this tiger subspecies and its habitat. The captive population of about 50 tigers, derived from six wild-caught founders, is genetically impoverished with low reproductive output. Given the size and fragmentation of potential tiger habitat, saving what remains of the captive population may be the only option left to prevent extinction of this tiger subspecies, and even this option is becoming increasingly less probable. This precarious dilemma demands that conservation priorities be re-evaluated and action taken immediately to decide if recovery of the wild population will be possible.

Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism between Siberian tiger and South China tiger revealed by mtDNA RFLP and PCR-RFLP

Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism between Siberian tiger and South China tiger revealed by mtDNA RFLP and PCR-RFLP