South Caucasus Research Articles

The South Caucasus from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Neolithic: Intersection of the genetic and archaeological data

The genomic characterisation of human remains and the study of archaeological assemblages are complementary keys to understanding the evolution of ancient human groups. This article proposes a dialogue between these two approaches for the South Caucasus between the Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic periods.In the Upper Palaeolithic before the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 40.-23. ka cal BP), genetic and archaeological data demonstrate the originality of the populations of the South Caucasus (Caucasus_UP genome) compared with their neighbours in SE Europe and SW Asia and also show the existence of links between these different regions. For the post-LGM phase (ca. 20.9–11.7 ka cal BP), archaeological data suggest a certain continuity with the previous period during the cold phase of the Oldest Dryas, followed by a marked rapprochement with the Zarzian culture in the Zagros starting with the warming of the Bølling-Allerød. Genetic analyses, which are available only for the latter phase, reveal a new genome (Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer or CHG), that is very close to that of the ancestors of the Neolithic populations of the Zagros.For the Early Holocene (ca. 11.7–8.2 ka cal BP or 9700-6200 cal BCE), the CHG genome, which still characterises the populations of the South Caucasus, is difficult to distinguish in modelling from that of the Zagros (Iran_N). However, archaeological data suggest that the spread of the Iran_N/CHG gene pool from Iran to Upper Mesopotamia and Central Anatolia was due to populations from the northwest Zagros, and not to those from the South Caucasus, who had only occasional contacts with the Fertile Crescent.At the beginning of the Middle Holocene (ca. 8.2–7.2 ka cal BP or 6200-5200 cal BCE), the appearance in the South Caucasus of animals and plants presenting a high level of domestication, as well as the introduction of new techniques (pressure knapping with a lever, pottery), are clearly due to the arrival of populations from the Fertile Crescent, as confirmed by genetic analyses. These analyses also show that there was not a replacement of local Mesolithic communities by Neolithic farmers, which the archaeological evidence confirms.

Balancing Powers: Azerbaijan’s National Role Conceptions Amidst Regional And Global Challenges

This study explores Azerbaijan's National Role Conceptions (NRCs) since its independence in 1991, analyzing how these evolving conceptions have shaped its foreign policy. Situated in the geopolitically sensitive South Caucasus, Azerbaijan has adopted various NRCs—including "regional stabilizer," "energy provider," and "bridge between East and West"—to address complex regional dynamics. Through a case study approach focusing on the leadership of Heydar and Ilham Aliyev, this paper examines the interplay between role perceptions, leadership transitions, and external pressures. The findings highlight Azerbaijan’s pragmatic strategy in balancing regional powers like Russia and Turkey while simultaneously engaging Western entities. This research sheds light on the inherent contradictions in Azerbaijan's NRCs, particularly its claims as a regional stabilizer amidst ongoing tensions. Ultimately, the study contributes to the broader understanding of NRCs as tools of both influence and adaptability in foreign policy decision-making.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF THE SOUTHEASTERN YEVLAKH-AGJABEDI DEPRESSION: A STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL OVERVIEW

The Southeastern part of Yevlakh-Agjabedi depression, situated within the Lesser Transcaucasian monocline, exhibits intricate geological structures and diverse sedimentary sequences crucial for hydrocarbon exploration. This study utilizes extensive geological mapping, stratigraphic profiling, and seismic exploration to delineate the basin’s structural elements and sedimentary formations. Key findings include the presence of Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous volcanogenic terrigenous and Upper Cretaceous volcanogenic carbonate rocks, which exhibit significant variations in thickness and distribution across the basin. The stratigraphic analysis reveals substantial Mesozoic sedimentary sequences that have undergone complex tectonic evolution, with notable implications for hydrocarbon potential. The Upper Cretaceous sediments, in particular, show promising conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation, with favorable paleostructural and lithostratigraphic traps identified. This comprehensive investigation enhances regional geological understanding and provides critical insights into the hydrocarbon exploration prospects within the South Caucasus region.

Edible woody plants growing wild in the Tbilisi environs (Georgia, South Caucasus)

In the environs of Tbilisi (Georgia, South Caucasus), 57 species of wildly grown trees and shrubs used for food by the local population have been identified. Five species of them are naturalized plants for Tbilisi area. The usage of edible trees and shrubs for food is diverse. Their different parts are used for food purposes - fruits, flowers, leaves, shoots. Moreover, the same species is used in different ways. It should be noted that the use of wildly grown trees and shrubs for food has decreased a lot in the last period. The main reasons for this are: (1) the population of Tbilisi and its surroundings mostly buys products in agricultural markets and supermarkets, (2) the rural population also grows various fruits in their homesteads, (3) a large part of the city population does not know about the use of various edible trees and shrubs.

Russia in the politics of South Caucasus countries after 2022

The research question is how national governments and civil societies reflect Russian involvement in the decision-making process of South Caucasus countries in 2022–2024? The structure of the research includes two sections: 1) Strategic interests of the countries of the South Caucasus and Russia in 2022–2024; 2) Changing the role of Russia in the South Caucasus in 2022–2024. In result of the research it was revealed that opting for a policy of normalization Georgia cannot renounce its territory (Abkhazia and South Ossetia). Azerbaijan has been the most consistent among the Caucasian countries in challenging Russian hegemony in the region. This trend intensified after the beginning of Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine: Azerbaijan increased humanitarian aid to Ukraine; pro-Ukrainian sympathies in Azerbaijani society were expressed through a number of leading media outlets that openly supported Kyiv. Baku unilaterally reviewed the ceasefire agreement - 2020, mediated by Russia. Amid the international isolation of the Kremlin, Azerbaijan began to play a much larger role for Russia. Baku is important link in the chain of diplomatic and economic ties of Putin's regime. Russia tries to maintain productive relations with Baku, even at the expense of its long-time ally Armenia. Yerevan revises its foreign policy, favouring a pro-Western vector. In Yerevan, the pro-Russian opposition organized rallies against the current government. Moscow and Baku both gained mutual benefits: Russia destabilized the situation in Armenia, and Azerbaijan restored its territorial integrity. However, these actions of Moscow struck at its influence in the region, marginalizing Russia and its "guarantees." The Caucasus provides a clear example of Russia's inability to continue playing the role of a major power: it simply lacks the strength and means.

Sustainable development awareness and integration in higher education: a comparative analysis of universities in Central Asia, South Caucasus and the EU

Education for sustainable development in universities is shaping the agenda in this area, demanding continuous improvement in quality. There is a trend towards integrating sustainability issues and the implementation of sustainable development goals into higher education. Universities responsible for educating SD professionals must teach knowledge and develop skills in line with the SDGs. However, there is insufficient attention to this in educational programs; more often it is implemented through disparate initiatives. The article presents research conducted in universities in the countries of Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), South Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia) and the European Union (Italy, Bulgaria, Poland). The awareness of students and teachers about the SDGs, the problems of implementing SD were assessed, and ways to solve these problems were analyzed. Countries were divided into clusters for comparative analysis. The results show that students generally have limited knowledge about the global sustainable development goals, while teachers have a higher level of awareness. The article examines the contribution of education to raising students' awareness in the countries studied and their attitudes towards integrating sustainability into the curriculum. The questionnaire showed that the educational intervention significantly influences students’ intention to engage in sustainability. Overall, students demonstrate positive attitudes towards incorporating sustainability issues into their education. The results of a study conducted in higher education institutions in Central Asia, South Caucasus and the European Union showed that students are generally unaware of the sustainable development goals, their information received through the Internet, media and university studies is insignificant, while teachers are better informed. Students and teachers expressed the greatest concern about environmental, social and economic problems. At the same time, students of engineering, technical and medical fields are more informed about the SDGs compared to pedagogical and socio-humanitarian fields. To increase awareness, universities are encouraged to integrate sustainability education into various disciplines, conduct seminars, round tables, promote student participation in projects and research, and promote international cooperation and knowledge sharing.

Վրաստանի աշխարհաքաղաքական տեղաշարժը. ներքին և արտաքին գործոններ / Georgia's Geopolitical Shift: Internal and External Factors

In the post-Soviet space, the South Caucasus has always stood out as the most conflict-ridden region. Three powerful neighbors of the region - Russia, Turkey and Iran - constantly monitor developments here, seeking to increase the dose of influence. As a result of the change of power, in 2012, the Georgian Dream party came to power in Georgia, and anti-Russian sentiments in the country began to decline. Despite all the pressure, the Georgian authorities did not join the sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union against Russia. The «Georgian Dream» party put forward a legislative initiative on foreign agents in 2023, after which it faced mass protests. As a result, the bill was withdrawn, but already in the next year, 2024, the majority of members of parliament again introduced the bill and on May 28th it was adopted. In Georgia, in 2023-2024, domestic political processes are taking place around this law, including the issue of changing the foreign policy vector.

Russians of the near abroad in the focus of Russian sociology: the evolution of research approaches and angles (1990s – 2020s)

The article examines main directions of sociological research on the Russian population of the near Abroad, establishes quantitative, thematic dynamics, territorial priorities of publications devoted to this problem complex. A shift in publication activity has been revealed from large forms (author’s and collective monographs, collections of articles) that dominated in the 1990s to scientific periodicals, the quantitative peak of which occurred in the second half of the 2000s. Of the leading Russian sociological publications “Sociological Studies” paid maximum attention to the problems of foreign Russians. The professional community, initially consisting of researchers from Moscow academic structures, gradually expanded to include specialists from St. Petersburg and the post-Soviet countries themselves. Since the late 2000s, the activity of researchers from Russian regions has been growing significantly. In the context of content, there was a gradual thematic detailing of research, a shift to more specific angles and narrow groups of the analyzed Russian population. Geographically, the interest of ethnosociologists was extremely unevenly distributed – three quarters of all publications were devoted to Russians from four post-Soviet countries (Kazakhstan, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine). At the same time, the Russian communities of the South Caucasus, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan practically fell out of the research focus, despite the fact that their adaptation to the new conditions of functioning was quite difficult.

Central Asia as a Continental Bridge or Thucydides Trap?

When the Western press and media report on Xinjiang, they tend to focus on the situation of the Uyghurs in this autonomous region of China. The fact that Xinjiang is of the highest strategic importance for China as a raw materials base, gateway to Central Asia and starting point of the New Silk Road, which is orientated towards Europe, and that real geopolitics is all about precisely these things, is often neglected. Of course, the starting point of the New Silk Road is in the strategists' crosshairs and it goes without saying that Central Asia and the South Caucasus are also targeted. After all, the shortest transport corridors to Europe run through these areas, now that the transport routes via Russia have been cancelled by Russia's war in Ukraine. This is where the Chinese New Silk Road and the European Global Gateway meet. What is the situation in Central Asia? What role does the International Trans-Caspian Transport Route play? How are China, the USA and Europe acting where the future of the New Silk Road is ultimately at stake? This article aims to provide a few answers to these questions, which should therefore only be understood as an approach to the topic of "Central Asia as a continental bridge or Thucydides' trap?".

Russia's South Caucasus Policy In The Context Of Geopolitical Interests

Russia's South Caucasus Policy In The Context Of Geopolitical Interests

Floristic findings of <i>Vaucheria</i> (Xanthophyceae) in Armenia and Azerbaijan

Based on herbarium material and the author’s collections, new records of three Vaucheria species from seven localities in the South Caucasus are presented. V. canalicularis and V. racemosa are newly recorded in Armenia. New localities in Azerbaijan are cited for V. dichotoma.

Minilateralism and global governance: effectiveness of hybrid models

ABSTRACT The liberal world order is showing signs of disarray: two recent catastrophes in adjoining parts of the world (the Middle East and South Caucasus) have opened the fissures of the international governance gap; and the continuing ramifications of COVID-19 have already paralysed the world. On top of this post-pandemic disquietude, multiple conflicts this year are either in danger of precipitating or wars have already re-ignited over long-standing continuing conflicts, highlighting the failure of international governance institutions, including the UN system. In recent years, one of the central responses to the multilateral failures at multiple levels has been for states to form ‘narrower’ and ‘more flexible’ frameworks called ‘minilaterals’. Thus minilateralism has been contrasted through the lens of receding multilateralism, which has been a long-standing hallmark of the American-led liberal international order. This paper examines how far global governance would be dependent on minilateralism by exploring this growing trend in the Indo-Pacific and explores how minilateralism models can enhance international governance structures. This paper also attempts to analyse whether minilateralism is a product of regional fragmentation, or whether it can reinvigorate the comatose multilateralism. Then this paper posits that minilateralism helps rejig the chaotic multipolar order and thus re-invent global governance.

Трансформация структуры государственного долга по составу кредиторов в странах Центральной Азии и Южного Кавказа

The rapid growth of public debt in developing countries in recent years and the increasing risks associated with this process emphasize the importance of research in this area. The article examines one of the key aspects of public debt management — the structure of creditors’ debt portfolio. The object of the study is the public debt of four countries of Central Asia and three countries of the South Caucasus. The states of this region are important foreign economic partners of Russia, their contribution to mutual trade and realization of joint projects is growing. Their role in the global and regional economy is also expanding, including participation in major transport and logistics projects designed to increase the connectivity of Eurasia. The study is based on the data of international organizations on the total volume of public debt, debt to individual external creditors and the dynamics of macroeconomic indicators. The article examines changes in the structure of the main groups of creditors for each country over three long-term periods and analyzes similarities and differences in the observed structural shifts. It also decomposes the indicator of public debt dynamics and estimates the contribution of the economic growth factor and the effects of changes in countries’ debt to certain groups of creditors. The study identified the following key trends in public debt structural changes: 1) the declining role of bilateral loans from developed and developing countries since the 2000s; 2) the continued strong influence of debt raised from international financial organizations and development banks in most countries throughout the period under study; 3) in a number of countries, a gradual increase in market sources of debt financing (domestic and Eurobonds); the increasing role of loans from China — in the Kyrgyz Republic and the Republic of Tajikistan, etc. The study identifies reasons for these structural changes, and concludes with a discussion of the risks associated with the observed shifts in the structure of public debt.

Из истории развития табаководства как важнейшей отрасли торгового земледелия в губер-ниях Южного Кавказа во второй половине XIX – начале XX века

The article focuses on the evolution of tobacco cultivation in the South Caucasus over the research period. The author investigates the spread of this technological culture throughout all provinces in the specified region. Information is provided on the quantity of land occupied for tobacco cultiva-tion, tobacco types, industrial firms and their owners, tobacco products produced, and tobacco sales locations. The author examines the many causes of the shift in demand for tobacco products over this historical time, as well as the unequal level of tobacco production. The essay discusses the excellent conditions for the growth of tobacco production in the South Caucasus, which eventually became commodities. The report also underlined the Russian government’s interest in spreading this crop, which was the primary raw material for the tobacco sector. The government, which contributed to the region’s colonial exploitation by the Russian and foreign bourgeoisie, benefited financially from the expansion of the cultivation of technologi-cal and precious crops. The author finds that the tobacco business in the South Caucasus evolved, improved, and gradually adopted the characteristics of commercial agriculture, which included commodity rela-tions. It is emphasized that the quick expansion of commercial agriculture is closely tied to the emergence of capitalist relationships in agriculture.

Subsistence economy in the South Caucasus during the Early Chalcolithic period: bioarchaeological analysis of Bavra Ablari rock-shelter (Samtskhe-Javakheti region, Georgia)

Subsistence economy in the South Caucasus during the Early Chalcolithic period: bioarchaeological analysis of Bavra Ablari rock-shelter (Samtskhe-Javakheti region, Georgia)

R&D expenditure and its macroeconomic effects: A comparative study of Israel and South Caucasus countries

The impact of research and development (R&D) expenditure is crucial for understanding contemporary economic development strategies. This study investigates the relationship between R&D spending as a percentage of GDP and economic growth, focusing on the South Caucasus countries (Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia) and Israel, which is notable for its substantial R&D expenditure (5.71% of GDP in 2020). The objective is to evaluate the impact of R&D expenditure on economic development through the application of rigorous empirical methods. By employing a quantitative approach, this study aims to offer a detailed analysis of the impact of R&D investment on economic growth across various countries. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyzes the association between R&D expenditure and GDP levels. Granger causality tests are utilized to investigate the causal relationships. The results demonstrate a significant positive relationship between R&D expenditure and GDP across all studied countries. Furthermore, the analysis reveals that GDP growth stimulates increased R&D investments in Azerbaijan and Armenia, as evidenced by Granger causality tests. To sum up, this paper underscores the critical role of R&D spending in driving economic development and highlights the necessity for policy initiatives focused on strengthening R&D frameworks.

The Republic of South Ossetia in the Context of Regional Security Threats

The article analyzes the security problems in the South Caucasus. The emphasis is placed on the key security threats to the Republic of South Ossetia, which is actually in a state of latent conflict with Georgia. The article uses the method of situational analysis (sitanalysis), which involves considering the problem at the applied level, identifying all the factors that influence the formation of the situation. The author considers that the most important part of the situational analysis is the development of practical recommendations in order to implement a favorable forecast and, if possible, avoid an unfavorable course of events.According to the author’s main conclusions, the Republic of South Ossetia is currently facing a number of serious external threats to its national security in the South Caucasus. The existing threats, challenges and risks for South Ossetia in the South Caucasus region tend to increase, both in local and regional variants. According to the author, efforts should continue to create a sustainable security architecture in the South Caucasus in order to prevent any violent scenarios for resolving existing contradictions and achieving sustainable peace and stability in the region.

Heritage conservation and civilisational competition in the South Caucasus: the Blue Mosque of Yerevan and the Govhar Agha Mosque in Shusha

ABSTRACT This paper explores the role of cultural heritage in shaping competing civilisational identities amid the Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict. As its case studies, it focuses on the relatively recent restorations of two significant mosques, the Blue Mosque in Yerevan (capital of Armenia) and the Govhar Agha Mosque in Shusha (capital of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan), respectively. Referring to primary references in Persian, Azerbaijani, Turkish, Armenian, and Russian, the paper elaborates historical, cultural, and political narratives surrounding these edifices and their restorations. This situates heritage conservation within the South Caucasus’s intricate historical and geopolitical landscape. Within this context, the function of heritage extends beyond national cultural symbolism. Responding to a transnational dimension, heritage functions as an instrument in geopolitical manoeuvring by both Armenia and Azerbaijan and in relation to rising and influential regional powers, Iran, and Turkey. Here the distinct function of heritage is shaping civilisational identities: it projects scales beyond the nation-state and is integral to various other forms of bilateral and multilateral agreements, including military and economic. As such, disputes over these two heritage sites and others like them, echo broader geopolitical and civilisational tensions at regional scales. Thus, heritage is at once the battleground for national-territorial and civilisational claims.

Transformation of Modern Wars in the South Caucasus: Azerbaijan's Hybrid War Against Artsakh

The Third Artsakh war has dramatically transformed the security environment in the South Caucasus. Being a result and indicator of changing world order, it unleashed the parameters of the newly-developing formats of conflicts, confrontations, and wars, called hybrid warfare. From this perspective the paper studies the parameters of hybrid warfare against Artsakh launched by Azerbaijan. Application of hybrid warfare against Artsakh is not a new phenomenon and has being practiced by Azerbaijan at least during the last 10-15 years. However, the results of the 44-day war has provided new framework, opportunities, and instruments to intensify hybrid operations, striving to maximize the results. Hence, the paper discusses the Azerbaijani strategy of hybrid war against Artsakh by analyzing the main strategies, tactics, instruments and tools used by Azerbaijan against Artsakh, specifically, after 44-day war. The paper argues that after the Third Artsakh war of 2020 Azerbaijan has launched a full scale hybrid operation to provide ethnic cleansing of Artsakh and receive ‘Nagorno-Karabakh without Armenians’. The operation was based on the following components: information-psychological campaign/influence operations (against Armenians in Artsakh), economic and energy aspects, ecological issues, blockade, international campaigns, support to split Armenian power (in Armenia and Armenian Diaspora), sabotage against critical infrastructure and population, and so on. Concluding the paper launches, a discussion about Azerbaijani engagement with Armenia after the ethnic cleansing of Artsakh of Autumn of 2023.

Strategic prospects for using international experience of foreign investment in Armenia

The article analyzes the strategic prospects for creating stable conditions for attracting additional volumes of foreign investment in the Armenian economy, which is due to the lack of own funds for sustainable social and economic development. The relevance of issues related to the role and place of foreign investment in Armenia, occurring due to the globalization of the world and regional economy, creating or limiting conditions for the movement of capital, has increased sharply in light of the sharp intensification of the policy of attracting foreign investment in the South Caucasus region. The practical experience of the transition period of the market economy of Armenia is summarized, as the country became more dependent on the level of regional and global integration. At this time, flows of foreign capital emerged not only in the form of government borrowings, but also in the form of diaspora transfers, assistance from international organizations, and the creation of joint ventures with Armenian entrepreneurs. Restrictions on obtaining high technologies, both in the form of goods and technical documentation, and in the form of direct investment, were gradually lifted.