South Belridge Research Articles

Fluid migration pathways to groundwater in mature oil fields: Exploring the roles of water injection/production and oil-well integrity in California, USA

Mature oil fields potentially contain multiple fluid migration pathways toward protected groundwater (total dissolved solids, TDS, in nonexempted aquifer <10,000 mg/L) because of their extensive development histories. Time-series data for water use, fluid pressures, oil-well construction, and geochemistry from the South Belridge and Lost Hills mature oil fields in California are used to explore the roles of injection/production of oil-field water and well-integrity issues in fluid migration. Injection/production of oil-field water modified hydraulic gradients in both oil fields, resulting in chemical transport from deeper groundwater and hydrocarbon-reservoir systems to aquifers in the oil fields. Those aquifers are used for water supply outside the oil-field boundaries. Oil wells drilled before 1976 can be fluid migration pathways because a relatively large percentage of them have >10 m of uncemented annulus that straddles oil-well casing damage and/or the base of groundwater with TDS <10,000 mg/L. The risk of groundwater-quality degradation is higher when wells with those risk factors occur in areas with upward hydraulic gradients created by positive net injection, groundwater withdrawals, or combinations of these variables. The complex changes in hydrologic conditions and groundwater chemistry likely would not have been discovered in the absence of years to decades of monitoring data for groundwater elevations and chemistry, and installation of monitoring wells in areas with overlapping risk factors. Important monitoring concepts based on results from this and other studies include monitoring hydrocarbon-reservoir and groundwater systems at multiple spatiotemporal scales and maintaining transparency and accessibility of data and analyses. This analysis focuses on two California oil fields, but the methods used and processes affecting fluid migration could be relevant in other oil fields where substantial injection/production of oil-field water occurs and oil-well integrity is of concern.

Investigating the effect of enhanced oil recovery on the noble gas signature of casing gases and produced waters from selected California oil fields

In regions where water resources are scarce and in high demand, it is important to safeguard against contamination of groundwater aquifers by oil-field fluids (water, gas, oil). In this context, the geochemical characterisation of these fluids is critical so that anthropogenic contaminants can be readily identified. The first step is characterising pre-development geochemical fluid signatures (i.e., those unmodified by hydrocarbon resource development) and understanding how these signatures may have been perturbed by resource production, particularly in the context of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques. Here, we present noble gas isotope data in fluids produced from oil wells in several water-stressed regions in California, USA, where EOR is prevalent. In oil-field systems, only casing gases are typically collected and measured for their noble gas compositions, even when oil and/or water phases are present, due to the relative ease of gas analyses. However, this approach relies on a number of assumptions (e.g., equilibrium between phases, water-to-oil ratio (WOR) and gas-to-oil ratio (GOR) in order to reconstruct the multiphase subsurface compositions. Here, we adopt a novel, more rigorous approach, and measure noble gases in both casing gas and produced fluid (oil-water-gas mixtures) samples from the Lost Hills, Fruitvale, North and South Belridge (San Joaquin Basin, SJB) and Orcutt (Santa Maria Basin) Oil Fields. Using this method, we are able to fully characterise the distribution of noble gases within a multiphase hydrocarbon system. We find that measured concentrations in the casing gases agree with those in the gas phase in the produced fluids and thus the two sample types can be used essentially interchangeably.EOR signatures can readily be identified by their distinct air-derived noble gas elemental ratios (e.g., 20Ne/36Ar), which are elevated compared to pre-development oil-field fluids, and conspicuously trend towards air values with respect to elemental ratios and overall concentrations. We reconstruct reservoir 20Ne/36Ar values using both casing gas and produced fluids and show that noble gas ratios in the reservoir are strongly correlated (r2 = 0.88–0.98) to the amount of water injected within ~500 m of a well. We suggest that the 20Ne/36Ar increase resulting from injection is sensitive to the volume of fluid interacting with the injectate, the effective water-to-oil ratio, and the composition of the injectate. Defining both the pre-development and injection-modified hydrocarbon reservoir compositions are crucial for distinguishing the sources of hydrocarbons observed in proximal groundwaters, and for quantifying the transport mechanisms controlling this occurrence.

Noble gas signatures constrain oil-field water as the carrier phase of hydrocarbons occurring in shallow aquifers in the San Joaquin Basin, USA

Noble gases record fluid interactions in multiphase subsurface environments through fractionation processes during fluid equilibration. Water in the presence of hydrocarbons at the subsurface acquires a distinct elemental signature due to the difference in solubility between these two fluids. We find the atmospheric noble gas signature in produced water is partially preserved after hydrocarbons production and water disposal to unlined ponds at the surface. This signature is distinct from meteoric water and can be used to trace oil-field water seepage into groundwater aquifers. We analyse groundwater (n = 30) and fluid disposal pond (n = 2) samples from areas overlying or adjacent to the Fruitvale, Lost Hills, and South Belridge Oil Fields in the San Joaquin Basin, California, USA. Methane (2.8 × 10−7 to 3 × 10−2 cm3 STP/cm3) was detected in 27 of 30 groundwater samples. Using atmospheric noble gas signatures, the presence of oil-field water was identified in 3 samples, which had equilibrated with thermogenic hydrocarbons in the reservoir. Two (of the three) samples also had a shallow microbial methane component, acquired when produced water was deposited in a disposal pond at the surface. An additional 6 samples contained benzene and toluene, indicative of interaction with oil-field water; however, the noble gas signatures of these samples are not anomalous. Based on low tritium and 14C contents (≤ 0.3 TU and 0.87–6.9 pcm, respectively), the source of oil-field water is likely deep, which could include both anthropogenic and natural processes. Incorporating noble gas analytical techniques into the groundwater monitoring programme allows us to 1) differentiate between thermogenic and microbial hydrocarbon gas sources in instances when methane isotope data are unavailable, 2) identify the carrier phase of oil-field constituents in the aquifer (gas, oil-field water, or a combination), and 3) differentiate between leakage from a surface source (disposal ponds) and from the hydrocarbon reservoir (either along natural or anthropogenic pathways such as faulty wells).

Predicting and Applying Wellhead Temperatures for Steamflood-Field Operation and Production-Performance Monitoring

SummaryProducer-flowline temperatures (FLTs) can be measured automatically with a thermistor on an emergency-shutdown system (ESD), or manually on a specified spot on flowline with a handheld unit. Measured FLTs can usually be mapped to represent the formation-temperature distribution for steamflood reservoir management purposes (Hong 1994; Nath et al. 2007). In addition to FLT, wellhead temperature (WHT) is another surface temperature. Predicting the long-term WHT trend in steamflood operation is necessary for designing surface facilities for both oil dehydration/separation and produced-water recycling. This predicted temperature will also be applicable for production-performance monitoring.To predict the wellhead temperature, Hasan et al. (2009) derived a steady-state analytical solution for calculating WHT from bottomhole temperature (BHT) under flowing conditions of a multisection slant wellbore for the isothermal primary-depletion process, with both WHT and BHT being time independent for a given gross rate (Igec et al. 2010). This steady-state analytical solution has been extended to calculate steamflood producer WHT from BHT (both are time dependent) by consecutively approximating the WHT and monthly average of FLT measurements to a steady-state solution. The monthly averaged FLTs are seasonally variable and higher in the summer months of July through September and lower in the winter months of December through February. Monthly averaged FLT measurements depend on an annual ambient-temperature cycle within the depth needed for reaching an undisturbed ground temperature (typically 30 to 50 ft) (Gwadera et al. 2017). WHT, if measured, should be comparable with FLT for their close typical distance of 5 to 10 ft. WHT prediction, however, is only process dependent and not seasonally variable because of the inability to describe seasonally undisturbed depth in the geothermal gradient. Therefore, WHT prediction can be validated with average summer-month FLT measurements when heat loss becomes minimal. BHTs in this analytical approach are predicted by the Lauwerier (1955) analytical model and improved by calibration with the available reservoir-simulation model or several years of FLT measurements for steamflood response time.The objective of this study is to develop an integrated production-monitoring approach using only the surface information, including WHT and FLT, oil/water-production rate, and injection-pressure/rate data, which can be applied to diagnose and optimize steamflood production performance. A field case study for the South Belridge Diatomite steamflood was investigated. WHT prediction is compared with FLT measurement for diagnosing and understanding the production performances, such as premature water or steam breakthrough, interference by the waterflood on the steamflood boundary producers, as well as the FLT variation related to the target rates for steam injection. This diagnostic analysis approach combined with the Buckley-Leverett theory-based displacement-efficiency analysis, and injection pressure and rate signal, will help to develop an improved understanding of the displacement detail and form a decision base to optimize the production performance.

Occurrence and Sources of Radium in Groundwater Associated with Oil Fields in the Southern San Joaquin Valley, California.

Geochemical data from 40 water wells were used to examine the occurrence and sources of radium (Ra) in groundwater associated with three oil fields in California (Fruitvale, Lost Hills, South Belridge). 226Ra+228Ra activities (range = 0.010-0.51 Bq/L) exceeded the 0.185 Bq/L drinking-water standard in 18% of the wells (not drinking-water wells). Radium activities were correlated with TDS concentrations (p < 0.001, ρ = 0.90, range = 145-15,900 mg/L), Mn + Fe concentrations (p < 0.001, ρ = 0.82, range = <0.005-18.5 mg/L), and pH (p < 0.001, ρ = -0.67, range = 6.2-9.2), indicating Ra in groundwater was influenced by salinity, redox, and pH. Ra-rich groundwater was mixed with up to 45% oil-field water at some locations, primarily infiltrating through unlined disposal ponds, based on Cl, Li, noble-gas, and other data. Yet 228Ra/226Ra ratios in pond-impacted groundwater (median = 3.1) differed from those in oil-field water (median = 0.51). PHREEQC mixing calculations and spatial geochemical variations suggest that the Ra in the oil-field water was removed by coprecipitation with secondary barite and adsorption on Mn-Fe precipitates in the near-pond environment. The saline, organic-rich oil-field water subsequently mobilized Ra from downgradient aquifer sediments via Ra-desorption and Mn/Fe-reduction processes. This study demonstrates that infiltration of oil-field water may leach Ra into groundwater by changing salinity and redox conditions in the subsurface rather than by mixing with a high-Ra source.

Regional patterns in the geochemistry of oil-field water, southern San Joaquin Valley, California, USA

Chemical and isotopic data for water co-extracted with hydrocarbons in oil and gas fields are commonly used to examine the source of the formation water and possible impacts on groundwater in areas of oil and gas development. Understanding the geochemical variability of oil-field water could help to evaluate its origin and delineate possible contamination of shallow aquifers in cases where oil-field water is released to the environment. Here we report geochemical and multiple isotope (H, C, O, Sr, Ra) data from 22 oil wells, three sources of produced water that are disposed of in injection wells, and two surface disposal ponds in four oil fields in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California (Fruitvale, Lost Hills, North and South Belridge). Correlations between Cl and δ18O, as well as other ions, and gradual increases in salinity with depth, indicate dilution of one or more saline end-members by meteoric water. The saline end-members, represented by deep samples (610 m–2621 m) in three oil-bearing zones, are characterized by NaCl composition, near-seawater Cl concentrations (median 20,000 mg/L), enriched δ18OH2O (median 3.4‰), high ammonium (up to 460 mg-N/L), and relatively high radium activity (226Ra+228Ra = 12.3 Bq/L). The deepest sample has low Na/Cl (0.74), high Ca/Mg (5.0), and low 87Sr/86Sr (0.7063), whereas the shallower samples have higher Na/Cl (0.86–1.2), Ca/Mg near 1, and higher 87Sr/86Sr (∼0.7083). The data are consistent with an original seawater source being modified by various depth and lithology dependent diagenetic processes. Dilution by meteoric water occurs naturally on the east side of the valley, and in association with water-injection activities on the west side. Meteoric-water flushing, particularly on the east side, results in lower solute concentrations (minimum total dissolved solids 2730 mg/L) and total radium (minimum 0.27 Bq/L) in oil-field water, and promotes biodegradation of dissolved organic carbon and hydrocarbon gases like propane. Acetate concentrations and δ13C of dissolved inorganic carbon indicate biogenic methane production occurs in some shallow oil zones. Natural and human processes produce substantial variability in the geochemistry of oil-field water that should be considered when evaluating mixing between oil-field waters and groundwater. The variability could result in uncertainty as to detecting the potential source and impact of oil-field water on groundwater.

A Practical Approach to History Matching Premature Water Breakthrough in Waterflood Reservoir Simulation: Method and Case Studies in South Belridge Diatomite Waterflood

Summary Premature water breakthrough negatively affects waterfloods in low permeability, naturally fractured reservoirs such as the South Belridge Diatomite. Premature water breakthrough reduces the effectiveness of waterflooding by partially or entirely bypassing the reservoir matrix where most of the reservoir fluids are stored. Reservoir simulation is handicapped by the inability to accurately characterize the architecture of the natural and induced fractures that yield high conductivity flow paths between injectors and producers. Generally, reservoir simulation can only represent the effective fluid flow by ignoring the ineffective water production that bypasses the matrix. Detailed production performance analysis yields a practical approach to assist reservoir simulation in history matching the waterflood process under premature water breakthrough conditions. Basic reservoir and rock–fluid characterization parameters must be tuned by history match of primary production or before water injection related effects dominate fluid flow under waterflooding. The Y-function waterflood analytical method is used to diagnose premature water breakthrough on a well-to-well basis for the timing and duration. Effective water injection and production volumes are recalculated in reservoir simulation and used to achieve a history match that honors oil production, reservoir pressure level, and injection/production volume balance. A field-scale case study is presented to demonstrate the application and procedure of the proposed approach. The long-term waterflood prediction with the history match model has been validated by comparing with analytical method forecast as well as the up-to-date continuous waterflood field data (4.5 years after history match date in the last reservoir simulation project). The proposed practical approach makes reservoir simulation a meaningful predictive tool in waterflood reservoirs when premature water breakthrough is a significant issue.

Production-Performance Diagnostics Using Field-Production Data and Analytical Models: Method and Case Study for the Hydraulically Fractured South Belridge Diatomite

Summary Oil and water production data are regularly measured in oilfield operations and vary from well to well and change with time. Theoretical models are often used to establish the production expectation for different recovery processes. A performance surveillance understanding can be developed by comparing the field production data with the production expectation. This comparison generates quantitative or qualitative signals to determine whether the producer meets production expectations or the producer is underperforming and appropriate operational action is required to address the underperformance. The case study is for the South Belridge diatomite in California. This hydraulically fractured diatomite reservoir is currently under waterflood and steamflood. A methodology is proposed to establish the production expectation from historical production data. For primary depletion, the formation linear and bilinear flow models are applied to producers with vertical hydraulic fractures. For waterflood, an analytical method derived from the Buckley-Leverett displacement theory is used. Those analytical methods can predict production and provide surveillance signals for producers in the primary and waterflood recovery stages. For steamflood, a semiquantitative performance/surveillance criterion is proposed on the basis of understanding the mechanistic oil banking concept and reservoir simulation results for steamflood and waterflood. With those models representing expected production performance, an integrated flow regime diagram is proposed for production surveillance. A performance expectation can be developed for an individual producer. A significant overperformance relative to the expectation normally indicates changes in the recovery mechanism or improvement in sweep efficiency. A significant underperformance usually signifies an operational issue that requires correction to optimize the production performance. In the case study, the surveillance methodology for producers under primary depletion, waterflood, or steamflood is demonstrated by use of historical production data. In addition, water channeling between injectors and producers and its impact on production performance are discussed. On the basis of this surveillance methodology, some operational actions were proposed, and successful results are demonstrated. Examples of forecast for an individual producer in the primary depletion stage and field scale prediction in the waterflood stage are provided. Application indicates that the proposed methodology can serve as a convenient and practical tool for reservoir surveillance and operational optimization.

Upgrading of crude oil via in situ combustion

Crude oil upgrading is of major economic importance. Heavy crude oils exist in large quantities in the western hemisphere, but are difficult to produce and transport because of their high viscosity. Some crude oils contain compounds such as sulfur and/or heavy metals causing additional refining problems and costs. In situ upgrading could be a very beneficial process for leaving the unwanted elements in the reservoir and increasing API gravity. In situ combustion has long been used as an enhanced oil recovery method. For heavy oils, numerous field observations have shown upgrading of 2° to 6° API for heavy oils undergoing combustion [Ramey, H.J., Jr., Stamp, V.V., Pebdani, F.N., 1992. Case History of South Belridge, California, In Situ Combustion Oil Recovery, SPE 24200, Proc. 9th SPE/DOE EOR Symposium, Tulsa, April 21–24.]. During in situ combustion of heavy oils, temperatures of up to 700 °C can be observed at the combustion front. This paper describes the changes caused by the various reactions occurring during combustion with emphasis on the upgrading potential for various oil types. We will first describe the in situ combustion process with an examination of the temperature changes and chemical reactions that can either upgrade or degrade the oil in terms of its API gravity and viscosity. In the second part, we present results from three combustion tube runs aimed at sulfur removal. We will end by discussing possible in situ upgrading strategies using combinations of in situ combustion and other improved recovery methods.

Geomechanical Modeling of Reservoir Compaction, Surface Subsidence, and Casing Damage at the Belridge Diatomite Field

Summary Geologic, and historical well failure, production, and injection data were analyzed to guide development of three-dimensional geomechanical models of the Belridge diatomite field, California. The central premise of the numerical simulations is that spatial gradients in pore pressure induced by production and injection in a low permeability reservoir may perturb the local stresses and cause subsurface deformation sufficient to result in well failure. Time-dependent reservoir pressure fields that were calculated from three-dimensional black oil reservoir simulations were coupled unidirectionally to three-dimensional nonlinear finite element geomechanical simulations. The reservoir models included nearly 100,000 gridblocks (100 to 200 wells), and covered nearly 20 years of production and injection. The geomechanical models were meshed from structure maps and contained more than 300,000 nodal points. Shear strain localization along weak bedding planes that causes casing doglegs in the field was accommodated in the model by contact surfaces located immediately above the reservoir and at two locations in the overburden. The geomechanical simulations are validated by comparison of the predicted surface subsidence with field measurements, and by comparison of predicted deformation with observed casing damage. Additionally, simulations performed for two independently developed areas at South Belridge, Secs. 33 and 29, corroborate their different well failure histories. The simulations suggest the three types of casing damage observed, and show that, although water injection has mitigated surface subsidence, it can, under some circumstances, increase the lateral gradients in effective stress that in turn can accelerate subsurface horizontal motions. Geomechanical simulation is an important reservoir management tool that can be used to identify optimal operating policies to mitigate casing damage for existing field developments, and applied to incorporate the effect of well failure potential in economic analyses of alternative infilling and development options.

Case History of Reservoir Subsidence and Wellbore Damage Management in the South Belridge Diatomite Field

Summary Production of fluids from the shallow, thick, and low-strength Diatomite reservoir in the South Belridge Field has resulted in reservoir compaction, surface subsidence, and numerous well failures. The most severe subsidence problems occurred while the field was under primary recovery, prior to implementation of waterfloods for pressure support. Consequently, a significant number of wells in the field have incurred casing damage, which proportionately limits the utility of these wellbores for continued production and routine wellwork operations. The nature of casing damage varies significantly depending on the location in the field, however casing shear ("kinks") generally produces the most severe problems in retaining full wellbore utility since it limits tool passage (e.g., packers, scrapers, etc. ) and is not economical to repair using conventional milling tools. Since the mid-1980s, surveillance has been in place to monitor and assess the magnitude and progression of surface subsidence, reservoir compaction, and wellbore damage in Exxon's operations of Section 19 in the South Belridge Field. The surveillance includes the use of ground elevation markers and a variety of production logs—several of which involve novel application and log interpretation. These data subsequently were used to develop and verify hybrid geomechanics and wellbore geometric models for assessing casing damage, identifying well operability and wellbore utility limits, and forecasting the remaining wellbore life from which a reservoir management plan and wellbore management operational strategies were established. A key ingredient in the implementation of this plan and operational strategies involved a cooperative tool development with a major oil tool service company to repair casing kinked wellbores as an alternative to re-drilling wells. In this article we provide a case history that describes the various synergistic reservoir and wellbore management activities designed to effectively mitigate subsidence-induced operational problems and the accompanying field benefits resulting from their implementation.

Steam Injection Project in Heavy-Oil Diatomite

Summary A steam injection project was conducted in diatomite containing heavy, biodegraded oil (12°API, ∼3,000 cp) in the South Belridge field, Kern County, California. The diatomite interval tested (the San Joaquin, Etchegoin, and Belridge diatomites) underlies an active steamflood in the sandstone of the Tulare formation. Initially, the test was to determine the viability of cyclic steam recovery from an unpropped, steam fractured completion in the diatomite. Four standard steam cycles were completed, with sluggish oil recovery [oil–steam ratios (OSR) were less than 0.1]. The well was then hydraulically fractured and propped. Two additional steam cycles were completed that had considerably greater oil recovery (OSR&amp;gt;0.2). The project was then configured for steamdrive by drilling a closely spaced producer. The new producer was initially completed with a propped hydraulic fracture and cycled once. The original cyclic producer was converted to continuous injection, and a two-well steamflood was operated for more than 1 year. During the steamflood, heavy oil was mobilized and response has been continuous. The configuration of the "pattern," with only one producer, results in poor capture efficiency. The performance of this incomplete pattern has been, as expected, poor (&amp;lt;0.1 OSR), but steam injection is shown to be a promising recovery technique for the heavy oil diatomite. The process is applicable to California diatomites, or any other high porosity, low permeability, shallow reservoirs that contain a significant concentration of heavy oil.

Lossy transmission line model of hydrofractured well dynamics

The real-time detection of hydrofracture growth is crucial to the successful operation of water, CO 2 or steam injection wells in low-permeability reservoirs and to the prevention of subsidence and well failure. In this paper, we describe propagation of very low frequency (1–10 to 100 Hz) Stoneley waves in a fluid-filled wellbore and their interactions with the fundamental wave mode in a vertical hydrofracture. We demonstrate that Stoneley-wave loses energy to the fracture and the energy transfer from the wellbore to the fracture opening is most efficient in soft rocks. We conclude that placing the wave source and receivers beneath the injection packer provides the most efficient means of hydrofracture monitoring. We then present the lossy transmission line model of wellbore and fracture for the detection and characterization of fracture state and volume. We show that this model captures the wellbore and fracture geometry, the physical properties of injected fluid and the wellbore-fracture system dynamics. The model is then compared with experimentally measured well responses. The simulated responses are in good agreement with published experimental data from several water injection wells with depths ranging from 1000 ft to 9000 ft. Hence, we conclude that the transmission line model of water injectors adequately captures wellbore and fracture dynamics. Using an extensive data set for the South Belridge Diatomite waterfloods, we demonstrate that even for very shallow wells the fracture size and state can be adequately recognized at wellhead. Finally, we simulate the effects of hydrofracture extension on the transient response to a pulse signal generated at wellhead. We show that hydrofracture extensions can indeed be detected by monitoring the wellhead pressure at sufficiently low frequencies.

Use of 3D Reservoir Characterization to Plan and Implement Horizontal Heavy Oil Development of the Tulare Reservoir South Belridge Field, California

Use of 3D Reservoir Characterization to Plan and Implement Horizontal Heavy Oil Development of the Tulare Reservoir South Belridge Field, California

Field-Scale and Wellbore Modeling of Compaction-Induced Casing Failures

Summary Presented in this paper are the results and verification of field- and wellbore-scale large deformation, elasto-plastic, geomechanical finite element models of reservoir compaction and associated casing damage. The models were developed as part of a multidisciplinary team project to reduce the number of costly well failures in the diatomite reservoir of the South Belridge Field near Bakers-field, California. Reservoir compaction of high porosity diatomite rock induces localized shearing deformations on horizontal weak-rock layers and geologic unconformities. The localized shearing deformations result in casing damage or failure. Two-dimensional, field-scale finite element models were used to develop relationships between field operations, surface subsidence, and shear-induced casing damage. Pore pressures were computed for eighteen years of simulated production and water injection, using a three-dimensional reservoir simulator. The pore pressures were input to the two-dimensional geomechanical field-scale model. Frictional contact surfaces were used to model localized shear deformations. To capture the complex casing-cement-rock interaction that governs casing damage and failure, three-dimensional models of a wellbore were constructed, including a frictional sliding surface to model localized shear deformation. Calculations were compared to field data for verification of the models.

Abstract: 3D Seismic Imaging of the Shallow Tulare Sandstone at South Belridge Field, CA - Results and Impact on Reservoir Development

Abstract: 3D Seismic Imaging of the Shallow Tulare Sandstone at South Belridge Field, CA - Results and Impact on Reservoir Development

Abstract: 3D Reservoir Visualization - Case Study from a Reservoir Development Program: South Belridge California

Abstract: 3D Reservoir Visualization - Case Study from a Reservoir Development Program: South Belridge California

Mapping Steam and Water Flow in Petroleum Reservoirs

Summary During the past 5 years, we have applied high-resolution geophysical methods [crosswell seismic and electromagnetics (EM) and passive seismic] to map and characterize petroleum reservoirs in the San Joaquin Valley and to monitor changes during secondary-recovery operations. The two techniques provide complementary information. Seismic data reveal the reservoir structure, whereas EM measurements are more sensitive to the pore-fluid distribution. Seismic surveys at the South Belridge field were used to map fracture generation and monitor formation changes caused by the onset of steamflooding. Early results show possible sensitivity to changes in gas saturation caused by the steamflooding. Crosswell EM surveys were applied at a shallow pilot at Lost Hills for reservoir characterization and steamflood monitoring. Images made from baseline data clearly show the distribution of the target oil sands; repeated surveys during the steamflood allowed us to identify the boundaries of the steam chest and to predict breakthrough accurately. Applications of the EM techniques in steel-cased wells are at an early stage, but preliminary results at Lost Hills show sensitivity to formation resistivity in a waterflood pilot.

Evaluation of Rock/Fracture Interaction: During Steam Injection Through Vertical Hydraulic Fractures

Summary The design, results, and analysis of a steamdrive pilot in the South Belridge diatomite, Kern County, California, are reviewed. Pilot results demonstrate that steam can be injected across a 1,000-ft-tall diatomite column using hydraulically fractured wells and that significant oil is produced in response to steaming. A computationally simple numerical model is proposed and used to analyze reservoir heating and volumetric sweep by steam. Results from the analysis show that hydraulic fractures undergoing steam injection can be dynamic and asymmetrical.

Passive Imaging of Hydrofractures in the South Belridge Diatomite

Summary We present the results of a seismic analysis of two hydrofractures spanning the entire diatomite column (1110-1910 ft or 338-582 m) in Shell's Phase II steamdrive pilot in South Belridge, California. These hydrofractures were induced at two depths (1110-1460 and 1560-1910 ft) and imaged passively using the seismic energy released during fracturing. The arrivals of shear waves from the cracking rock ("microseismic events") were recorded at a 1 ms sampling rate by 56 geophones in three remote observation wells, resulting in 10GB of raw data. These arrival times were then inverted for the event locations, from which the hydrofracture geometry was inferred. A five-dimensional conjugate-gradient algorithm with a depth-dependent, but otherwise constant shear wave velocity model (CVM) was developed for the inversions. To validate CVM, we created a layered shear wave velocity model of the formation and used it to calculate synthetic arrival times from known locations chosen at various depths along the estimated fracture plane. These arrival times were then inverted with CVM and the calculated locations compared with the known ones, quantifying the systematic error associated with the assumption of constant shear wave velocity. We also performed Monte Carlo sensitivity analyses on the synthetic arrival times to account for all other random errors that exist in field data. After determining the limitations of the inversion algorithm, we hand-picked the shear wave arrival times for both hydrofractures and inverted them with CVM. Finally, to correct for the areal inhomogeneity of the rock, we calculated the distortion of conical waves that were generated by air gun blasts in a remote observation well. This novel technique improved significantly the accuracy of the event locations in the shallow hydrofracture. The azimuth of both hydrofractures was N21° ±4°E. In each treatment well, there were two separate hydrofractures at two different depths that correspond to the diatomite layers with higher permeabilities. Both shallow hydrofractures were asymmetrical. Initially, the upper NE wing was 230 ft long, whereas the lower SW wing was only 30 ft long. The deep hydrofracture was symmetrical and the wings of its two parts were initially 130 and 10 ft long, respectively. These conclusions agree well with temperature surveys in the surrounding observation wells during steam injection.