Source Of Water Supply Research Articles

Characteristics and Driving Mechanisms of Shallow Groundwater Chemistry in Xining City

Groundwater is one of the major sources of water supply, especially in the western arid regions. However, with the deepening of the western development strategy, industrialization and urbanization have increased groundwater resource demands in Xining City. Overexploitation and utilization have led to a series of changes in the groundwater environment. Identifying the chemical evolution characteristics and formation mechanism of groundwater is crucial for preventing its deterioration and ensuring sustainable use. By combining hydrochemistry and multivariate statistical techniques, the chemical characteristics of groundwater in Xining City were analyzed, and the formation mechanism of groundwater and the influence of different factors were discussed. The results showed that there were as many as 36 chemical types of shallow groundwater in Xining City, mainly HCO3-Ca(Mg) (60.00%) and HCO3·SO4-Ca(Mg) (11.81%). There were 5-6 types of groundwater chemical types in bare land, grassland, and woodland. Groundwater chemical types in construction land and cultivated land were more complex, up to 21 types, indicating that they were strongly affected by human activities. The chemical evolution process of groundwater in the study area was mainly affected by rock weathering and leaching, evaporative crystallization, and cation exchange. The main controlling factors were water-rock interaction (contribution rate 27.56%) and industrial wastewater discharge (contribution rate 16.16%), acid-base environment (contribution rate 16.00%), excessive application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (contribution rate 13.11%), and domestic sewage (contribution rate 8.82%). On account of the chemical characteristics of groundwater in Xining City and the influence of human activities, the management and control suggestions on the development and utilization of groundwater resources were put forward.

Evaluation of the chemical and bacteriological parameters of well and borehole waters in the city of Natitingou in the North West of Benin

The general objective of this research is to study the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of the water supply sources in the Municipality of Natitingou. The methodological approach adopted revolves around the collection of data on sources of drinking water supply, water sampling, socio-anthropogenic data. The analysis of the results shows that water resources are not very diversified and are limited to rainwater and groundwater. The factors that explain the bacteriological pollution of these waters are linked to the conditions of transport and storage of water, the environment, the almost total absence of a wastewater management system and the behavior of the population. Chemical pollution is due to chemicals used in socio-economic activities and released into nature.

Climate Change and Hydrological Response in the Ranwu Lake Basin of Southeastern Tibet Plateau

It is of great practical significance to accurately distinguish the different water supply sources of rivers and lakes under climate change for regional water resources utilization. This study examines the impact of climate change on the hydrological processes of the Ranwu Lake basin in the southeastern Tibet Plateau. The authors used China Meteorological Forcing Dataset (CMFD) historical data, CanESM5′s future climate predictor, and the SPHY model to analyze trends in temperature, precipitation, and water supply sources in the basin. The study found that warming in the basin was higher than that in the Tibet Plateau, with high-altitude areas and winter showing more significant warming. From 1998 to 2018, precipitation in the basin showed a trend of fluctuation and decline. The study also found that glacial meltwater accounted for the majority of total runoff in the basin (54.13%), while snow meltwater, rainfall, and baseflow accounted for about 22.98%, 11.84%, and 11.06%, respectively, on average in recent years. The total runoff in the Ranwu Lake Basin will continue to decrease due to the accelerating retreat of glaciers, with the hydrological process transforming from being dominated by glacier processes to rain–snow processes. The study also predicts that three-quarters of glaciers in the basin will vanish within the next forty years, and by 2100, only around 20% of glaciers will remain.

Groundwater Practices and Vulnerability at a Pocket of the Northwest Region of Bangladesh: A Study Based on Social and Hydrogeological Factors

The combined effects of climate change and anthropogenic factors are causing the depletion of the groundwater level in the Northwest region of Bangladesh, leading to the rise of socio-economic stress among the rural marginalised communities. This research aims to assess the current water practices by identifying the changes in water supply sources and associated socio-economic stress to rural marginalised communities. Both social and hydrogeological factors have been taken into consideration for vulnerability assessment. The social factors are (a) percentage of indigenous households, (b) percentage of poor households, (c) percentage using unhygienic water sources and (d) percentage of households having water scarcity. On the other hand, the hydrogeological factors are (a) depth of topsoil, (b) elevation, (c) stream density, (d) slope of the elevation, (e) land use and (f) soil. The geospatial-based weighted linear combination technique combines all the social and hydrogeological factors. The resultant areas are characterised by five categories: very low to very high vulnerability. According to social and hydrogeological factors, Sapahar, Tilna, Dibar, Sihara and Nirmail unions are in the most vulnerable zone.

Effect of pre-chlorination on Microcystis aeruginosa cell integrity and microcystins removal

ABSTRACT High nutrient input into waterbodies increases potentially toxic cyanobacteria blooms. Pre-chlorination treatment is excellent for cyanobacterial cell inactivation and dissolved cyanotoxins removal in water supply sources. This study aims to evaluate the pre-chlorination effect treatment on Microcystis aeruginosa cell integrity and its hepatotoxins (microcystins, MC) release and degradation on a laboratory scale. Loss of cell integrity is observed with increasing chlorine concentration. The maximum cell permeability without cell disintegration occurs at 2.5 mg Cl2 L−1. Degradations up to 70% and chlorophyll-a reductions over 70% are observed after 60 min exposure, with complete degradation at 2.5 and 3 mg Cl2 L−1. However, chlorine (Cl2) exposure over 40.66 mg min L−1 is required for microcystins MC-LR (i.e. radicals: leucine (L) and arginine (R)) and MC-RR (i.e. radicals: arginine and arginine) oxidation oxidation to concentrations below the legislation value for water potability.

Step-by-Step Fabrication of PVDF-TiO2 Hollow Fiber Membrane and Its Application Desalination of Wetland Saline Water via Pervaporation

Wetland water is opted as the source of domestic water supply when the availability of clean fresh water is scarce. Wetland water requires proper treatment due to the high concentration of organic matter and high salinity, particularly in the dry season. This research aims to synthesize, characterize, and investigate the performance of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-TiO2 hollow fiber membrane for wetland saline water desalination via pervaporation. The PVDF-TiO2 hollow fiber membranes were fabricated through the dry wet spinning method under various air gaps (10, 15, and 20 cm). Then, the resulting membranes were tested in a pervaporation process at temperatures of 25, 40, and 60°C. Results show that the incorporation of TiO2 into the PVDF matrix imparted hydrophilicity properties into the resultant membranes. The presence of TiO2 was confirmed by the TiO2 stretching vibration at 1640 cm-1 (FTIR) and the TiO2 phase at diffraction peaks at 25.5 and 37°. The membranes exhibited the highest water flux (7.48 kg/m2.h) and salt rejection ( 99.5%) at 40°C. Overall, the developed PVDF-TiO2 hollow fiber membranes showed encouraging results and demonstrated their effectiveness for the desalination of wetland saline water.

Climate change impact assessment on groundwater level changes: A study of hybrid model techniques

AbstractOne of the most important sources of water supply is groundwater. However, the groundwater level (GWL) is significantly impacted by the global climate change. Therefore, under these more severe climate change conditions, the accurate and simple forecast of farmland GWL is a crucial component of agricultural water management. A hybrid model (HM) of Bayesian random forest (BRF), Bayesian support vector machine (BSVM), and Bayesian artificial neural network (BANN) is built in this study. The HM is made up of a Bayesian model averaging (BMA) and three machine learning models: random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and artificial neural network. These three HMs are employed to help automate logical inference and decision‐making in business intelligence for groundwater management. For this purpose, data on 8 separate climatic factors that impact GWL changes in the study area were acquired. Nine distinct farming communities' GWL change data were utilised as the dependent variables for each model fit (community data). The effectiveness of the HM techniques was assessed using the evaluation metrics of mean absolute error (MAE), coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute percent error (MAPE), and root mean square error (RMSE). The model fit in Suhum had the greatest performance with the highest accuracy (R2 varied from 0.9051 to 0.9679) and the lowest error scores (RMSE ranged from 0.0653 to 0.0727, and MAE ranged from 0.0121 to 0.0541), according to the models' evaluation results. The BRF delivered the greatest results when compared to the two independent HMs, the BSVM and BANN. Future GWL and climatic variable data may be trained using the trained HM techniques to determine the effects of climate change. Farmers, businesses, and civil society organisations might benefit from continuous monitoring of GWL data and education on climate change to help control and prevent excessive deteriorations of global climate change on GWL.

Water challenges of Dire Dawa city of Ethiopia: An assessment of urban growth and groundwater supply

Urbanization in Ethiopia is increasing rapidly, leading to environmental changes and necessitating improved urban infrastructure. Dire Dawa, the second most populous city in Ethiopia, has a high rate of urban growth. This study focuses on three main areas: remote sensing analysis of urban growth, urban water supply and water distribution system, and groundwater resources management. Land use and land cover (LULC) analysis over four different time periods showed significant and rapid expansion of the city. The current and future water demand and supply analysis found that the water supply is three times less than the water demand, indicating that existing water sources are not adequate for the future expansion of the city. Moreover, the hydraulic performance of the existing distribution system as analyzed by WaterGems software found that pressure at 22.41% of nodes and velocities at 29.83% of pipes are sufficient to provide water for the study area. Finally, the study investigated the discharge and water level and water quality of each borehole in Dire Dawa City. Overall, this study showed that high urbanization rate together with the population growth has put pressure on the existing water supply source and existing water distribution system calling for feasible water management strategy for the city.

Cultural practices and use of pesticides on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) market gardeners in Loumbila and Ouahigouya (Burkina Faso)

The misuse of pesticides and their overdose on vegetables has an impact on people's health. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the cultivation and phytosanitary practices of tomato growers at the Loumbila and Ouahigouya vegetable growing sites. A survey on cultural and phytosanitary practices was carried out among 25 tomato producers at these two market gardening sites. Results show that 16% of producers use dams and 80% traditional wells as a source of water supply. The inputs used are mainly organic (cow's mouth, household waste) and chemical (NPK, urea) fertilizer. The frequency of use of chemical fertilizer is once a week at the Loumbila site and only once a month in the Ouahigouya site. All the producers surveyed used pesticides and 67% do not respect the deadlines for indicated on the packaging labels. A total of 16 pesticides (insecticides, fungicides) are used during tomato production. Cypermethrin and Lambda-cyhalothrin from the pyrethroid family and acetamiprid from the Neonicotinoid family were the most used by producers. Most of these pesticides are not intended for vegetable crops but rather for cotton crops. The pesticides used may remain in the tomato in significant amounts and pose a threat to consumers.

Substantiation of recommendations for safe aerial application of pesticides used by unmanned aierial vehicles (UAVs)

Annotation. UAVs have many advantages over traditional aerial application methods, including greater accuracy, efficiency, availability, cost-effectiveness, and safety, as well as improved data collection and real-time monitoring. The absence of appropriate rules and regulations that would govern the use of agrodrones can jeopardize the health of people, animals and plants, and can also negatively affect environmental objects. The aim is to substantiate recommendations for the safe aerial application of pesticides using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Field research was conducted in the Vinnytsia, Kyiv, and Zhytomyr regions of Ukraine in 2019-2022 using the most common models of agricultural drones DJI Agras T16 and XAG XPlanet 2020. Statistical processing of the results was carried out using a package of licensed statistical programs IBM SPSS Statistics Base v.22, Jupyter Notebook 6.4.8 and Python 3.11. Based on studies we have conducted, we recommend maintaining the following protective zones for various objects: 500 m from settlements, animal husbandry complexes, work sites dedicated to the manual care and cultivation of agricultural crops, reservoirs and recreational areas; from fishing reservoirs, open sources of water supply, grazing places for domestic animals, objects of the nature reserve fund, areas for sowing crops that are used for food without heat treatment – 2 km; from the place of permanent residence of honey bees – 3 km. If there are apiaries near the location of aerial application, it is necessary to notify the beekeepers in advance 12 hours before the start of application, so that the beekeeper has time to take measures for the safety of the bees. The point of remote piloting of the UAV (ground control station of the drone and refueling of the sprayer tank) must be located at a distance of at least 25 m from the field border. Thus, we have developed recommendations that will simplify the use of agricultural drones, a promising technique for the agro-industrial complex, while minimizing risks for workers, the population, and the environment. The hygienic aspect of the use of UAVs needs further comprehensive and detailed study.

Wildfire and climate change amplify knowledge gaps linking mountain source-water systems and agricultural water supply in the western United States

Agricultural production in the western United States relies on water supplies from mountain source-water systems that are sensitive to impacts from wildfire and a changing climate. The resultant challenges to water supply forecasting directly impact agricultural producers and irrigation managers who rely on snowmelt and streamflow forecasts for crop selection and irrigation scheduling. To date, much research has focused on source-water system processes and agricultural production separately, but in this short communication we highlight a substantial need for new research connecting these disparate systems to improve forecasting accuracy. We identify key knowledge and data gaps regarding the functioning of source watersheds and their contributions to agricultural water resources with associated uncertainties in the context of wildfire and changing climate. In doing so, we encourage researchers, resource managers, and agricultural producers to consider the interdependency of water supply source and sink relationships through improved observations, monitoring, and modeling to ensure sustainable food production in the western US.

A study on measuring the 222Rn in the Buriganga River and tap water of the megacity Dhaka.

Radon (222Rn), an inert gas, is considered a silent killer due to its carcinogenic characteristics. Dhaka city is situated on the banks of the Buriganga River, which is regarded as the lifeline of Dhaka city because it serves as a significant source of the city's water supply for domestic and industrial purposes. Thirty water samples (10 tap water from Dhaka city and 20 surface samples from the Buriganga River) were collected and analyzed using a RAD H2O accessory for 222Rn concentration. The average 222Rn concentration in tap and river water was 1.54 ± 0.38 Bq/L and 0.68 ± 0.29 Bq/L, respectively. All the values were found below the maximum contamination limit (MCL) of 11.1 Bq/L set by the USEPA, the WHO-recommended safe limit of 100 Bq/L, and the UNSCEAR suggested range of 4-40 Bq/L. The mean values of the total annual effective doses due to inhalation and ingestion were calculated to be 9.77 μSv/y and 4.29 μSv/y for tap water and river water, respectively. Although all these values were well below the permissible limit of 100 μSv/y proposed by WHO, they cannot be neglected because of the hazardous nature of 222Rn, especially considering their entry to the human body via inhalation and ingestion pathways. The obtained data may serve as a reference for future 222Rn-related works.

DESIGN OF SANITARY PROTECTION ZONES FOR UNDERGROUND WATER INTAKES USING GEOINFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

The article reveals the features of designing sanitary protection zones for underground water intakes for oil fields in Western Siberia using GIS technologies.Sanitary protection zones (SPZs) shall be organized in accordance with the requirements of [1-4] to create and ensure the sanitary protection regime for drinking water supply sources and their accompanying water supply facilities. The purpose of the SPZ organization is sanitary protection of both the source of water supply itself and the adjacent territory from biological and chemical pollution. A special management mode is established in each of the three SPZ belts, and a certain set of security measures is developed for each belt to prevent deterioration of water quality [3, 10]. The purpose of the first SPZ belt is to protect water wells and structures from accidental or intentional contamination and damage, therefore, the first SPZ belt is limited to the territory of the site of water wells, treatment and water supply facilities.The size of the second SPZ belt was determined provided that bacterial contamination entering the captive aquifer beyond the border of the second belt does not reach the water intake during the survival time of microorganisms Tm, and the size of the third SPZ belt — based on the conditions of stable composition of pollutants in the water for the entire period of operation of the water intake.The task of establishing three zones of the water intake SPZ is to calculate the dimensions of the SPZ boundaries and apply these boundaries to the topobase of the area taking into account the general plan of the designed construction object.The article contains several examples of solving practical problems for determining the boundaries of sanitary protection of underground water intakes, in cases where there is no natural groundwater flow (i = 0), there is (i > 0) and where it is necessary to determine the direction of groundwater flow and natural flow rate as a function of the pressure gradient i.

Polluting our rivers in search of gold: how sustainable are reforms to stop informal miners from returning to mining sites in Ghana?

Introduction: Although artisanal gold mining has contributed to livelihoods in many rural communities across the world, it has destroyed and polluted several water bodies.Methods: Using Prestea in the southwestern region of Ghana, this paper demonstrates how artisanal gold mining has culminated in the pollution of freshwater bodies and the ecosystem. A non-probabilistic purposive sampling technique was used for the selection of twelve artisanal gold mining communities. We used participant observation, in-depth interviews with stakeholders, a review of policy and legal documents, reports from media websites, and site visits to various artisanal gold mining sites. We observed that artisanal gold mining has destroyed major rivers, which used to serve as major sources of water supply for domestic and irrigation purposes. To achieve benign production, the Ghanaian government over the years has made efforts to formalize the operations of galamsey activities through six main routes: policy intervention, a complete ban on their activities, military strategy, national dialogue, alternative livelihood programs, and community mining. We assessed the sustainability of three of these measures (i.e., policy intervention, a complete ban on ASM, and the military strategy).Results: We found that none of these approaches is sustainable, as the miners continue to defy the orders and military brutalities and return to mining sites to continue their operations.Conclusion: Therefore, acknowledging ASM as a significant tool for reducing poverty and its pertinent contribution to the larger economy, providing tax exemptions and incentives to informal miners to boost their production, involving local mining communities and subaltern miners in mineral governance and decision-making, removing bureaucracies and lowering costs to make the registration of new ASM businesses easier, and strengthening the mine regulatory infrastructure are necessary to formalize the sector.

Land uses in cities and their impacts on the water quality of urban freshwater blue spaces in the Pampean region (Argentina).

Freshwater blue spaces (FBS), such as ponds, are key elements of the urban landscape and are under strong anthropogenic pressure. Land-use types and diversity may exert a negative or positive impact on FBS' water quality depending on their nature and arrangement. The information available in this respect is remarkably scarcer for water bodies in the Global South than for the north. Thus, we aim to identify and quantify the land-use types in a 500-m buffer zone of urban ponds in the Pampean region (Argentina) to assess their impact on water quality. We based our study on 15 FBS located in neighborhoods of Buenos Aires province during cold and warm seasons. We analyzed physical, chemical, and biological variables, and estimated water conditions by means of water quality indexes (WQIs) and quality guidelines. We quantified the dominant land-use type and the diversity of uses in the ponds' buffer zones, and evaluated their relationships with WQIs. Our results showed that WQIs were negatively related to a high proportion of residential areas in the adjacent zone, while positively to recreational ones. The diversity of land uses did not influence the water quality. We propose a new WQIpond with fewer key response variables, and as sensitive as the currently used WQIobjetive. We conclude that water quality from urban ponds in the Pampean region can be affected by dominant land-use type in the adjacent area but also the quality of their water supply sources (superficial and/or underground), clandestine wastewater discharges, and non-point pollution.

Regional Specifics of Water Use in the Republic of Belarus

Water management statistics of the state water cadaster of the Republic of Belarus was used to analyze the dynamics of water use over 2000–2019. The study is based on the statistical methods for the analysis of time series and the relative characteristics of water use dynamics. Trends and priorities were revealed in water use in the country as a whole and at the level of administrative regions. It is shown that in 2000–2019, water intake in the country decreased by 28%, and the use of water for drinking and industrial needs dropped by more than 30%. Comparative analysis revealed differences in water use between regions expressed in the relative characteristics: total water intake, the volume of groundwater development and surface water extraction, the amounts of water use for different purposes. In the majority of administrative regions of the country (102 out of 118), the main source of water supply is groundwater, the development of which exceeds the extraction of surface water, and in 36 regions, water supply relies completely on groundwater. The administrative regions are grouped by the priority objectives of water use. It is found that two water use objectives are of priority in 78 regions; these are household and agricultural needs, met by groundwater. The differentiation of the volumes of water withdrawal and water use priorities at the regional level is determined by population size, the development level of material production branches, and their water demand.

Evaluating Statistical Machine Learning Algorithms for Classifying Dominant Algae in Juam Lake and Tamjin Lake, Republic of Korea

South Korea’s National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) operates an algae alert system to monitor water quality at public water supply source sites. Accurate prediction of dominant harmful cyanobacterial genera, such as Aphanizomenon, Anabaena, Oscillatoria, and Microcystis, is crucial for managing water source contamination risks. This study utilized data collected between January 2017 and December 2022 from Juam Lake and Tamjin Lake, which are representative water supply source sites at the Yeongsan River and Seomjin River basins. We performed an exploratory data analysis on the monitored water quality parameters to understand overall fluctuations. Using data from 2017 to 2021 as training data and 2022 data as test data, we compared the dominant algal classification accuracy of 11 statistical machine learning algorithms. The results indicated that the optimal algorithm varied depending on the survey site and evaluation criteria, highlighting the unique environmental characteristics of each site. By predicting dominant algae in advance, stakeholders can better prepare for water source contamination accidents. Our findings demonstrate the applicability of machine learning algorithms as efficient tools for managing water quality in water supply source systems using monitoring data.

Sumur Gali Gambaran Risiko Pencemaran Dan Kandungan Coliform Air Sumur Gali Di Kenagarian Gurun Panjang Kapuh Kecamatan Koto XI Tarusan

Dug wells are the main source of clean water supplies for people living in rural and urban areas of Indonesia. The clean water used by the people of the Panjang Kapuh Desert generally comes from dug wells and drilled wells. In Village Gurun Panjang Kapuh, there are many dug wells that do not meet the construction requirements of dug wells, so they can pose a risk to clean water consumed by the community. The purpose of this study was to obtain an overview of the risk of pollution and coliform content of dug well water in the Village Gurun Panjang Kapuh, Koto XI Tarusan District, Pesisir Selatan Regency in 2022. This research is descriptive with a population of all houses that have clean water facilities dug wells as many as 730 dug wells. Data obtained from the results of the sanitary inspection of dug wells using the sanitation inspection form, in 85 dug wells 7 samples of dug well water were taken for water biology examination (Coliform) in the laboratory. Generally, there is a high risk of contamination of dug wells (69.4%). The total biological content (Coliform) of dug well water from 7 samples, 6 of which did not meet the requirements. It is recommended to the public to make or repair the well construction so that it has a good construction to prevent contamination of dug wells. Health workers should provide counseling and supervise dug well sanitation inspections and periodically check the biological quality of dug well water.

Characterization and Productivity of Alluvial Aquifers in Sustainability Oasis Areas: A Case Study of the Tata Watershed (Southeast Morocco)

Groundwater from alluvial aquifers is a critical source of water supply for rural agriculture, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions. Effective management of these aquifers requires an understanding of the factors that influence their water resources. In this study, we present a case study of the Tata watershed in southeastern Morocco, where the economy is heavily dependent on agriculture and relies exclusively on groundwater. We demonstrate the importance of integrating geological, hydrogeological, and geophysical methods to characterize the aquifer and evaluate groundwater productivity. Analysis of 64 data wells tapping into the aquifer revealed significant disparities in flow yields, ranging from 0.05 to 15.50 L per second. The highest yields were found between depths of 12 and 43 m, which correspond to the alluvium and the altered and fractured part of its substrate. The maximum alluvial thickness of 57 m was determined using geo-electrical prospecting. A piezometric map was created to define the recharge zones, which correspond to the lateral contributions of the bordering Georgian limestones, and infiltration of both rain and surface water along the Tata wadi. Since 1987, there has been a continuous drop in groundwater level, which can be attributed to the increase in irrigated areas following financial incentives provided by the Moroccan government to the agricultural sector. A proposal has been made for the construction of a recharge dam to enable the recharge of the alluvial aquifer. This development is expected to serve a dual purpose by mitigating the deleterious impacts of flooding and facilitating the gradual water infiltration of the alluvial aquifer. This case study provides insights into the hydrodynamics of the aquifer and establishes a simplified model of its functioning. These findings have important implications for the management of alluvial aquifers in similar regions.

Uranium in man-made carbonates on the territory of Ufa

The paper presents the results of analyzing uranium content in man-made carbonates (scale crusts) on the territory of Ufa based on examination of 42 samples. The median uranium content in the investigated samples stands at 1.44 mg/kg, which is significantly lower than the background values (scales from the Lake Baikal water, a clarke of sedimentary carbonate rocks) and data on other settlements of the Republic of Bashkortostan. Low values of uranium content are probably associated with the effects of the three leading factors, i.e. specific subsurface geology of the territory (gypsum, limestone); types of water supply; water treatment processes for the centralized type of water supply. Spatial distribution of uranium in man-made carbonates is characterized with uniformity, which is disturbed in two cases, i.e. a change of the water supply type (from centralized to individual); and material of the vessels used for boiling the water. No significant differences were detected when comparing samples of man-made carbonates associated with different sources of water supply (the bucket and infiltration types of water intake) and the types of household filters.