Source Of Sodium Research Articles

Top Sodium Food Sources in the American Diet—Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Reducing population-level sodium intake can reduce hypertension, an important preventative strategy to lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases, the leading cause of death in the United States. Considering that most dietary sodium is derived from prepackaged foods, this study quantitatively estimates the proportion contribution and mean sodium intake from key food category contributors to total sodium intake in the US population. Data from the 2017-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, which collected interviewer-administered 24 h dietary recalls from Americans (n = 7081), were analyzed. Based on the average proportion contributed, the top 15 sources of sodium were identified overall and by age/sex, poverty-income and race/ethnicity. More than 50% of US population-level dietary sodium intake was contributed by: pizza (5.3%); breads, rolls and buns (4.7%); cold cuts and cured meats (4.6%); soups (4.4%); burritos and tacos (4.3%); savoury snacks (4.1%); poultry (4.0%); cheese (3.1%); pasta mixed dishes (2.9%); burgers (2.5%); meat mixed dishes (2.5%); cookies, brownies and cakes (2.4%); bacon, frankfurters and sausages (2.4%); vegetables (2.2%); and chicken nuggets (1.5%), with the results remaining consistent among population subgroups. The results identified the top sources of sodium in the American population overall, as well as in key population subgroups, which can inform policies and programs aimed at reducing sodium intake.

Ti, F Codoped Sodium Manganate of Layered P2-Na 0.7 MnO 2.05 Cathode for High Capacity and Long-Life Sodium-Ion Battery

Ti, F Codoped Sodium Manganate of Layered P2-Na _0.7 MnO _2.05 Cathode for High Capacity and Long-Life Sodium-Ion Battery

The quantification of sodium intake from discretionary salt intake in New Zealand using the lithium-tagged salt method.

Discretionary salt (added in cooking at home or at the table) is a source of sodium and iodine in New Zealand. The amount of discretionary salt consumed in a population has implications on policies regarding sodium and iodine. Sodium intake from discretionary salt intake has not been quantified in New Zealand. The aim of this study was to estimate the proportion of total sodium that comes from discretionary salt in adults using the lithium-tagged salt method. A total of 116 healthy adults, who were not pregnant or breastfeeding, regularly consume home-cooked meals and use salt during cooking or at the table, aged 18-40 years from Dunedin, New Zealand were recruited into the study. The study took place over a 9-day period. On Day 1, participants were asked to collect a baseline 24-h urine to establish their normal lithium output. From Day 2 to Day 8, normal discretionary salt was replaced with lithium-tagged salt. Between Day 6 and Day 8, participants collected another two 24-h urine samples. A 24-h dietary recall was conducted to coincide with each of the final two 24-h urine collections. Urinary sodium was analysed by Ion-Selective Electrode and urinary lithium and urinary iodine were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. The 24-h dietary recall data was entered into Xyris FoodWorks 10. All statistical analysis were conducted using Stata 17.0. A total of 109 participants with complete 24-h urine samples were included in the analysis. From the 24-h urine collections, the median urinary excretion of sodium and iodine was 3,222 mg/24 h (25th, 75th percentile: 2516, 3969) and 112 μg/24 h (82, 134). The median estimated sodium intake from discretionary salt was 13% (25th, 75th percentile: 7, 22) of the total sodium intake or 366 mg/24 h (25th, 75th percentile: 186, 705). The total sodium intake was higher than the suggested dietary target of 2,000 mg/day. In this sample of healthy adults 18 to 40 years old, 13% of total sodium intake derived from discretionary salt. Discretionary salt is an additional source of iodine if iodised salt is used. Policies to reduce sodium intake is recommended to include a range of strategies to target discretionary and non-discretionary sources of salt and will need to take into account the contribution of iodine from discretionary salt intake.

Intake and food sources of sodium in the population residing in urban areas of Ecuador: results from ELANS study

ABSTRACT Background In 2021, WHO notes that globally, 32% of annual deaths worldwide are due to cardiovascular causes, which have been attributed to excessive sodium intake, and therefore recommends a reduction in salt intake to less than 5 g/day. Ecuador does not have data on sodium consumption in the population. Hence, this study sought to determine the association between sodium consumption and sociodemographic variables in subjects living in urban areas of Ecuador. Objectives Determine the main dietary sources of sodium in subjects living in urban areas of the Coast and Highlands of Ecuador, and the association between sodium intake and sociodemographic variables such as: sex, region, marital status, socio-economic and educational level of this population. Methods Sodium intake was studied in 800 subjects of both sexes aged 15 to 65 years living in urban areas in Ecuador, originating from the Latin American Nutrition and Health Study (ELANS) between 2014 and 2015. Data were obtained through two 24-hour recalls, and were accessed according to sex, region, age, marital status, socio-economic and educational levels. Results The mean sodium intake was 4900 mg/day (SD ± 1188.32 mg/day), and both sexes exceeded the recommendations. Adjusting for energy intake, sodium consumption is higher in participants aged 50–65 years, from low socio-economic status and with basic education level. A positive relationship was found between sodium and energy intake. Around 48% of the sodium sources included the spices, condiments and herbs group. Within this group, salt itself constitutes 99% of sodium sources. Conclusions The Ecuadorian population consumes more than double the sodium recommendations, which vary according to gender and age. The first source of sodium is salt itself, which is part of spices and condiments food group. This data is important to formulate public health policies and interventions in Ecuador, especially in the population at risk.

Effects of Voluntary Sodium Consumption during the Perinatal Period on Renal Mechanisms, Blood Pressure, and Vasopressin Responses after an Osmotic Challenge in Rats.

Cardiovascular control is vulnerable to forced high sodium consumption during the per-inatal period, inducing programming effects, with anatomical and molecular changes at the kidney, brain, and vascular levels that increase basal and induce blood pressure. However, the program- ming effects of the natriophilia proper of the perinatal period on blood pressure control have not yet been elucidated. In order to evaluate this, we studied the effect of a sodium overload challenge (SO) on blood pressure response and kidney and brain gene expression in adult offspring exposed to voluntary hypertonic sodium consumption during the perinatal period (PM-NaCl group). Male PM-NaCl rats showed a more sustained increase in blood pressure after SO than controls (PM-Ctrol). They also presented a reduced number of glomeruli, decreased expression of TRPV1, and increased expression of At1a in the kidney cortex. The relative expression of heteronuclear vaso- pressin (AVP hnRNA) and AVP in the supraoptic nucleus was unchanged after SO in PM-NaCl in contrast to the increase observed in PM-Ctrol. The data indicate that the availability of a rich source of sodium during the perinatal period induces a long-term effect modifying renal, cardiovascular, and neuroendocrine responses implicated in the control of hydroelectrolyte homeostasis.

Study on the effect of an ultrasound assisted reaction on the crystallization properties of recovered cryolite.

During the treatment of spent cathode carbon from electrolytic aluminum, a large amount of fluoride containing wastewater is generated. By adding different sodium source and aluminum source reagents, under the conditions of different addition order, pH, temperature and time, the effects of conventional static reaction, stirring reaction and ultrasonic assisted reaction on the crystallization properties of recovered cryolite were investigated. The results showed that under the optimum reaction conditions (sodium source: NaCl, aluminum source: AlCl3, the molar ratio of AlCl3 to NaCl is 1 : 3, addition order: first addition of AlCl3 and then NaCl, pH is 8.57, time is 40 min, temperature at room temperature), the removal efficiency of fluoride ions was the highest when ultrasound assisted treatment was used. The cryolite products with ultrasound assisted crystallization and without ultrasound assisted crystallization were characterized using SEM and TEM. The results showed that the crystal particles obtained by ultrasound assisted crystallization were relatively concentrated, and the morphology was regular and the surface was smooth. Design Expert orthogonal software was used to design the response surface test, it was found that ultrasound time has the most significant impact on the content of recovered cryolite among single factors, and the interaction between ultrasound frequency and ultrasound power, ultrasound power and ultrasound time was highly significant among multiple factors.

PS-P09-2: ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE, AWARENESS AND PRACTICES OF SALT INTAKE AMONG URBAN POPULATION

Objective: The prevalence of hypertension has been rising drastically in all populations. The dietary habits which have become unhealthy in past few decades contribute to this global health threat. The rise in salt intake has been seen consistently in many populations, especially from hidden sources. The goal of this study was to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of urban populations, regarding dietary salt intake. Designs and Methods: A standardised questionnaire was used to perform a cross sectional survey among a representative sample of 500 persons aged 18 to 69 years in 2021. The questionnaire used for assessing the salt intake is a closed questionnaire and has been previously used in a similar setting and has been validated. It is a likert scale questionnaire with maximum 48 points possible. Results: The majority of them ate processed foods, and only a few read food labels before buying groceries. Most participants (64%) despite consuming processed foods, felt that they consumed the right amount of salt. Most participants were not aware of all foods which are categorized as processed foods. Only 26% of participants felt that excess salt intake could result in deleterious effects on health. The majority of participants (60%) believe that reducing salt in the diet is unimportant. Most participants added salt (98.8%) while cooking meals. Most participants (76%) ranked poorly on the salt intake scale and only 13% ranked well on it. The practices of salt intake showed the worst scores among awareness and attitudes. Conclusion: Overall awareness of dietary salt intake in their diet was quite low among urban residents. The practices of the participants reflected high salt intake with poor attitudes. There is a need for introducing awareness campaigns to sensitize people towards sources of sodium, calculating salt intake and recommended allowances for salt intake.

India's tryst with salt: Dandi march to low sodium salts.

Salt plays a critical role in India's past as well as its present, from Dandi March to its role as a vehicle for micronutrient fortification. However, excess salt intake is a risk factor for high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Indians consume double the World Health Organization recommended daily salt (<5 g). India has committed to a 30 per cent reduction in sodium intake by 2025. Evidence based strategies for population sodium intake reduction require a moderate reduction in salt in - home cooked foods, packaged foods and outside-home foods. Reducing the sodium content in packaged food includes policy driven interventions such as front-of-package warning labels, food reformulation, marketing restrictions and taxation on high sodium foods. For foods outside of the home, setting standards for foods purchased and served by schemes like mid-day meals can have a moderate impact. For home cooked foods (the major source of sodium), strategies include advocacy for reducing salt intake. In addition to mass media campaigns for awareness generation, substituting regular salt with low sodium salt (LSS) has the potential to reduce salt intake even in the absence of a major shift in consumer behaviour. LSS substitution effectively lowers blood pressure and thus reduces the risk of CVDs. Further research is required on the effect of LSS substitutes on patients with chronic kidney disease. India needs an integrated approach to sodium reduction that uses evidence based strategies and can be implemented sustainably at scale. This will be possible only through scientific research, governmental leadership and a responsive evidence-to-action approach through a multi-stakeholder coalition.

Sodium Intake Tracked from Infancy and Salt Taste Preference during Adolescence: Follow-up of a Randomized Controlled Field Trial in Brazil

BackgroundEffective interventions to promote healthy sodium intakes require understanding factors driving liking for salt taste. ObjectivesTo examine effects of an early feeding intervention among low-income mothers on their children’s energy and sodium intake and salt taste preferences at 12 years; and to identify age-related changes in dietary sodium sources. MethodsSecondary analyses were conducted on dietary intake and taste preference data collected from children in a longitudinal trial (NCT00629629). Mothers randomized to the intervention group received counseling on healthy eating practices for 1 year postpartum; the control group received no counseling. Two-day dietary recalls were obtained at 1 year (intervention end) and at 4-, 8-, and 12-year follow-up visits, from which foods were categorized as unprocessed, processed, or ultra-processed. At the 12-year visit, children’s most preferred concentration of salt was measured using a validated, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method, and pubertal stage was self-assessed. ResultsThe intervention group had reduced energy intake compared with controls in all food categories at 1 year (P = 0.04) but not at the other time points. Sodium intake from processed foods increased from 4 to 12 years and from ultra-processed foods from 1 to 4; intake from unprocessed foods decreased from 1 to 8 year (all P < 0.01). At 12 years, children in early stages of puberty (Tanner stages 1–3; P = 0.04) or in the ≥75th percentile of sodium intake (P < 0.01) preferred significantly higher concentrations of salt than the other children. ConclusionsBoth dietary intake of sodium and early puberty were associated with preferences for higher salt concentrations. Childhood and adolescence are important periods for understanding how experience and growth shape diet by changing salt taste. Clinical Trial RegistrationThis manuscript reports secondary analysis of data collected in trial NCT00629629 (2001–3) and follow-up [https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00629629?term=NCT00629629&draw=2&rank=1].

The use of herbs and spices in sodium-reduced meals enhances saltiness and is highly accepted by the elderly

Dietary intake of sodium by the elderly population in nursing homes should be monitored due to the greater sensitivity of elderly people to sodium. This study aimed to explore any associations between sodium intake and salt taste perception in an institutionalized elderly population and to research the potential of sodium reduction by the use of herbs and spices. The study included 123 senior citizens in nursing home who were on average 80.7 (±5.8) years old. The nutritionist collected data on sodium intake by using 24-hour recall on two non-consecutive days, and taste perception was assessed by salty taste detection and recognition thresholds. An intervention study of sodium reduction was tested on three categories of dishes, potentially high sources of sodium. The participants were divided into three intervention groups, the control group, the 30 % sodium reduction group, and the 30 % sodium reduction with an added blend of herbs and spices. The elderly's average sodium intake exceeded the recommendation by 70 %. The study determined a significant positive correlation between sodium intake and a higher salt taste threshold (r = 0.17; p < 0.05). The saltiness of sodium-reduced foods was significantly lower than the control, but herbs and spices enhanced the saltiness, and the intensity was the same as the control. The liking for sodium-reduced meals was the same as for the control. A declining salty taste is an important determinant of elderly nursing home residents' adherence to the dietary recommendation for sodium intake. Reducing sodium content in meals through the careful addition of spices and herbs aids elderly people in maintaining healthy dietary habits.

An experimental study on the concentration of heavy metals and minerals found in some of the estuarine organisms in Thengaithittu estuary, Puducherry

It is a known fact that edible aquatic animals possess a rich source of minerals and metallic compounds. In order to analyze the composition of minerals and heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Cd, Pb, and Cr) present in these fauna, this study was conducted in two fishes mullet and cat fish (Mugil cephalus&amp; Ictalurus punctatus), two crustaceans prawn and crab (Fenneropenaeus indicus&amp; Portunus sanguinolentus) and mussel (Perna viridis) which were collected from Thengaithittu estuary region, Puducherry, India. The results showed that the Zinc concentration is maximum in prawn and minimum in catfish, Copper concentration is maximum in catfish and minimum in mullet fish, Iron concentration is higher in catfish and minimum in mussel, Manganese concentration is maximum in mussel and minimum in prawn, Cadmium concentration is higher in crab and minimum in mussel, lead content is maximum in mullet and minimum in crab and Chromium concentration is higher in mussel and minimum in mullet. Mineral analysis reveals that the prawn had the good source of sodium, potassium and calcium and least in mussel. In this context the heavy metals and minerals concentration in estuarine fish, prawn, crab and mussel perceived in the current study was within the tolerable limits. The results of the current study suggest that eating fish, prawns, crab, and mussels from the Thengaithittu estuary in Puducherry may not have any negative effects.

The Possible Source of Abnormally High Sodium Content in Low-Salinity Geothermal Water.

The dissolution of sodium-containing minerals in high-temperature geothermal systems can cause Na+ to exceed 400 mg/L with high salinity. But the Na+ of low-salinity geothermal water is mostly less than 100 mg/L in medium-low temperature geothermal systems. However, geothermal water with Na+ up to 325.4mg/L and total dissolved solids less than 650 mg/L was found in the Huangshadong geothermal field, which is a typical medium-low temperature hydrothermal system in South China. The water chemistry results indicate that thermal groundwater is uniformly HCO3 -Na type with high sodium content (average 240.06 mg/L). All the thermal groundwater and shallow groundwater have the same meteoric origin based on δD and δ18 O. According to water chemical geothermometers and multicomponent mineral equilibrium (MME) method, the reservoir temperature is estimated to be 100 to 130 °C at a maximum depth of 2.43 km. The estimation of the Cl- mixed indicator suggests that geothermal water has mixed with 51% to 72% of shallow groundwater, resulting in the reduction of Na+ content in real geothermal water (Na+ up to 685.2mg/L). The simulated results of water-rock interactions indicate that mineral dissolution and ion exchange have minor contributions to Na+ enrichment in geothermal water. Hydrochemical simulations and Gibbs diagrams suggest an additional source of high sodium: granite fluid inclusions are fractured into geothermal water at high temperatures. Granite fluid inclusions may only account for 3% to 5% of geothermal water, but they provide the main source of Na+ in geothermal water.

Proximate, Vitamins, Minerals and Anti-Nutritive Constituents of the Leaf and Stem of Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet: A Folk Medicinal Plant in South Africa

Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet (Asteraceae) is a perennial shrub used in South African folk medicine to combat human diseases such as diabetes, coughs, asthma, and diarrhoea, and for wound treatment. This study evaluated the leaf and stem of H. odoratissimum for their nutritive and anti-nutritive qualities using the standard methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and colorimetry. Crude fat and protein were high in the leaf (7.61% and 7.82% DW), but low in the stem (2.25% and 3.4%), respectively. The neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content was significantly higher in the stem (68.5%) compared to the leaf (43.6%), while non-fibre carbohydrate (NFC) in the leaf (24.93%) was higher than in the stem (15.67%). Mineral analysis showed that both the leaf and stem of H. odoratissimum are good sources of potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, phosphorus and iron. Appreciable amounts of vitamins B2, C and E in the leaf and stem supports the folkloric utility of the plant in the traditional treatment of wounds, coughs and colds. A tolerable amount of phytate in both leaf (0.36%) and stem (1.06%) might be a factor for safer consumption of the plant as food and medicine. These findings suggest the use of the plant as a source for dietary supplementation and ethnomedicinal applications.

Prevalence of Excess Sodium Intake and Their Corresponding Food Sources in Adults from the 2017–2018 Brazilian National Dietary Survey

Excessive sodium intake has been related to high blood pressure, a central risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In the present work, updated estimates of sodium intake, the main food sources, and the prevalence of excessive intakes in a nationwide multi-ethnic sample of Brazilian adults (2017–2018 Brazilian National Dietary Survey) were presented. Based on two 24-h recalls adjusted for the within-person variation, the overall median of sodium intake was 2432 mg. The prevalence of adults exceeding the recommended limits (tolerable upper limit, UL, and the chronic disease risk reduction cut-off point, CDRR) was 61% and 56%, respectively. The median sodium intake and proportion of individuals above the limits varied according to the subgroups evaluated. Males and adults (20–29 years) presented the highest excessive sodium intakes, and consequently, lowest adherence rates to UL and CDRR recommendations. The top food sources of sodium were white bread and toast (12.3%), beans (11.6%), white rice (10.6%), beef (7.7%), and poultry meat (5.5%). Given the health benefits of dietary sodium reduction, it would be advisable to enhance the current national initiatives of awareness and educational campaigns’ combined efforts to reduce sodium in processed foods to effectively decrease this micronutrient intake across the Brazilian population.

Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant activity and phenolic acids profile of Tunisian whole cereal grains

Six varieties of Tunisian durum wheat, barley and oat cultivars namely Maali, Karim, Rihane, Manel, Meliane and Ghzella were analyzed for their physicochemical properties, antioxidant activities and phenolic acids profile. Results showed that there are significant (p &lt; 0.05) differences in moisture (11.8-12.8%), proteins (10.98-12.09%), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) (47.67-67.39%), ash (2.4-3.93%), fat (2.6- 6.75%), and carbohydrates (64.78-70.95%) contents between all studied varieties. Cereal grains were also a good source of potassium, sodium, calcium, zinc and iron. The results revealed that oat Meliane (5.9%) and barley Rihane (5.4%) varieties are good sources of dietary fiber β-glucan compared to the other varieties. Rihane, Meliane and Maali varieties had the highest total phenolic, total flavonoids and total condensed tannin contents. Antioxidant activity of whole grain extracts was performed using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test and revealed that barley Rihane had the best radical scavenging activity compared to oat and durum wheat varieties. The RP-HPLC analysis revealed that Tunisian barley, oat and durum wheat varieties are a good source of phenolic components and natural antioxidants.

Confined WS2 Nanosheets Tubular Nanohybrid as High-Kinetic and Durable Anode for Sodium-Based Dual Ion Batteries.

Sodium based dual-ion battery (SDIB) has been regarded as one of the promising batteries technologies thanks to its high working voltage and natural abundance of sodium source, its practical application yet faces critical issues of low capacity and sluggish kinetics of intercalation-type graphite anode. Here, a tubular nanohybrid composed of building blocks of carbon-film wrapped WS2 nanosheets on carbon nanotube (WS2 /C@CNTs) was reported. The expanded (002) interlayer and dual-carbon confined structure endowed WS2 nanosheets with fast charge transportation and excellent structural stability, and thus WS2 /C@CNTs showed highly attractive electrochemical properties for Na+ storage with high reversible capacity, fast kinetic, and robust durability. The full sodium-based dual ion batteries by coupling WS2 /C@CNTs anode with graphite cathode full cell presented a high reversible capacity (210 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 ), and excellent rate performance with a high capacity of 137 mAh g-1 at 5.0 A g-1 .

Effective Extraction of the Al Element from Secondary Aluminum Dross Using a Combined Dry Pressing and Alkaline Roasting Process.

Secondary aluminum dross (SAD) is a hazardous solid waste discharged from aluminum electrolysis and processing and the secondary aluminum industries, which causes severe environmental pollution and public health disasters. The stable presence of the α-Al2O3 and MgAl2O4 phases in SAD makes it difficult for it to be efficiently utilized. A combined dry pressing and alkaline roasting process was proposed for extracting the valuable Al element from SAD. Two alkaline additives (NaOH and Na2CO3) were selected as a sodium source for extracting the aluminum source from SAD in order to perform the thermodynamic analysis and roasting experiments. The phase transition behavior and the leaching performance tests were conducted using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence, leaching kinetics and thermal analysis. The recovery of Al and Na reached the values of 90.79% and 92.03%, respectively, under the optimal conditions (roasting temperature of 1150 °C, Na2CO3/Al2O3 molar ratio of 1.3, roasting time of 1 h, leaching temperature of 90 °C, L/S ratio of 10 mL·g−1 and leaching time of 30 min). Meanwhile, the removal efficiency of N and Cl reached 98.93% and 97.14%, respectively. The leaching kinetics indicated that the dissolution of NaAlO2 clinkers was a first-order reaction and controlled by layer diffusion process. The green detoxification and effective extraction of the Al element from SAD were simultaneously achieved without any pretreatments.

Dietary sodium sources according to four 3-d weighed food records and their association with multiple 24-h urinary excretions among middle-aged and elderly Japanese participants in rural areas.

Reducing Na intake is an urgent global challenge, especially in East Asia and high-income Asia-Pacific regions. However, the sources of Na and their effects on urinary Na excretion have not been fully studied. We sought to clarify these sources and their association with urinary Na excretion. We examined four 3-d weighed food records and five 24-h urinary collections from each of 253 participants in Japan, aged 35-80 years, between 2012 and 2013. We compared the levels of Na according to four categories: foods contributing to discretionary or non-discretionary Na intake, the situation in which dishes were cooked and consumed, food groups and types of cuisine. We also conducted regression analysis in which 24-h urinary Na excretion was a dependent variable and the amounts of food intake in the four categories were independent variables. Levels of Na were the highest in discretionary intake (60·6 %) and in home-prepared dishes (84·0 %). Of the food groups, miso soup showed the highest percentage contribution to Na intake (13·3 %) after seasonings such as soya sauce. In the regression analysis, the standardised coefficient for foods of non-discretionary Na sources was larger than that for discretionary sources, whereas that for home-prepared dishes was consistent with the levels of Na in those foods. Pickled products, followed by fresh fish and shellfish, miso soup and rice, were associated with high urinary Na excretion. Thus, discretionary foods (such as miso soup) contribute the most to Na consumption, although non-discretionary intake (such as pickled vegetables) may influence urinary Na excretion.

Influence of sodium ion on high-silica SSZ-13 membranes for efficient CO2/CH4 and N2/CH4 separations

Here, high-silica SSZ-13 membranes were prepared on macroporous supports by regulating sodium sources (NaOH, NaCl, Na2SO4 and sodium-free) under fluoride and aluminum free gel. A pure phase and high gas permeation SSZ-13 membrane with oval-shaped crystals on the membrane surface was obtained by NaCl. It suggests that alkali metal sodium ion promoted crystal crystallization. The influence of Na2O (2NaCl)/SiO2 ratio (from 0.025 to 0.2) on the crystallization process of zeolite membranes was investigated in detail by XRD, SEM and gas permeation tests. The content of NaCl hardly affected the structure of SSZ-13 but could affect the morphology and size of the crystals. The best membrane (NaCl/SiO2 = 0.2) had a mixed CO2 and N2 gas permeance of 5.4 × 10−7 mol/(m2 s Pa) and 5.2 × 10−8 mol/(m2 s Pa), along with the CO2/CH4 and N2/CH4 selectivity of 155 and 12.3, respectively. The effects of pressure drop, temperature and feed concentration on membrane separation performance were explored. In addition, the obtained SSZ-13 membrane exhibited the hydrothermal stability in the humid N2/CH4 mixture under 298K, indicating the application prospects in natural gas separation.

Effective Control of Road Luminaires—A Case Study on an Example of a Selected City in Poland

According to various estimates, street lighting in Poland consumes between 1.500 and 2.500 GWh per year and is responsible for some greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation. Also on the basis of estimates, it is estimated that approximately 3.3 million road and street luminaires are used in Poland. The increase in electricity costs, on the one hand, and the technical possibilities in the field of lighting, on the other, force the search for new solutions aimed at saving during the operation of electrical devices and installations, including road lighting installations. One of the methods of saving electricity is to replace the luminaires with energy-saving ones with LED sources, but also with new sodium and metal halide sources. The latter solution is cheaper and allows us to keep existing poles, electrical installation and luminaire heads if their technical parameters have not been degraded. The new and already used luminaires with discharge sources can be used in road lighting, provided that they meet the requirements of Polish law and the EU regulations. Like luminaires with LED sources, they can have an adjustable value of the emitted luminous flux, which allows us to save electricity. One of the methods of saving electricity in road installations is their effective lighting control. Such control can take place at very different levels, from the manual setting of the required light intensity using dimmers to full automation taking into account other factors influencing the operation of the road lighting system, e.g., time of day, intensity of external light, presence of road users, weather conditions and others. The article describes both of the above-mentioned methods, describing their advantages and disadvantages on the basis of actual measurements of working road installations, and analyzes the annual operation of a modernized road lighting installation with automatic lighting control in one of the selected cities in Poland.