Source-separated Collection Research Articles

A Disposable Diaper Collection Project in Langa, Cape Town, South Africa: A Pilot Study.

In developing countries, there is currently no established waste management plan that includes resource recovery from used disposable diapers (DDs) apart from incineration and landfilling. In low-income areas with limited storage space, the complex composition and odour of used DDs make it impossible to manage properly if not supported by effective waste management systems. In the absence of effective waste management, DDs are dumped in open spaces, burned or buried. These actions pose threats to the safety and health of humans, animals and the environment. Separation and collection of DDs are critical preliminary steps to landfilling, recycling or beneficiation. In this article, we describe a case study of two pilot collection projects in Langa township in Cape Town, South Africa, to determine whether and how a source-separated collection system can work in low-income, resource-constrained areas. The lessons learned highlighted the following: The eagerness of parents to participate for the benefit of their own and their children's health; the complementarity of the two pilot collection models to serve the needs of the community; the important role non-government organisations play in the implementation of waste management projects; the significance of the possible job creation opportunities and the unintended benefits of enhancing social cohesion. The financial sustainability of these projects needs further exploration.

Positive Impacts of the Overall-Process Management Measures on Promoting Municipal Solid Waste Classification: A Case Study of Chongqing, China

Municipal solid waste (MSW) classification is a national strategic objective and an important component of successful municipal solid waste management (MSWM). Some failures of pilot programs suggest that safeguarding measures are essential for MSW classification. A questionnaire survey of public awareness and attitudes toward MSW source-separated collection in Chongqing’s main districts was conducted, and the results indicated that the proportions of respondents willing to participate in MSW classification and provide money for it were 67.9% and 86.2%, respectively. The positive impacts of the overall-process management measures on promoting MSW classification in Chongqing’s main districts, including source-separated collection system, transportation system, treatment and disposal system, and environmental sanitation prevention system, were analyzed comprehensively. The analyses revealed that a 98% resident participation rate was obtained for MSW source-separated collection with the application of a cloud-based platform and traceability system. Moreover, the secondary transportation and comprehensive “4 + 1” (four waste incineration plants and one waste landfill) disposal mode showed significant advantages with respect to costs and environmental friendliness. In view of the environmental sanitation risks, the prevention and control of environmental sanitation were developed in Chongqing. The future prospects have also been discussed. The refinement and regionalization of source-separated collection are proposed as the possible solution.

The effects of compost bin design on design preference, waste collection performance, and waste segregation behaviors for public participation

Municipal solid waste (MSW) composting is one of the most effective strategies for MSW management but detrimental litter such as plastic and glass debris must be discarded elsewhere. Well-segregated wastes are necessary in this context. A compost bin is a waste collection tool for source separation. To date, the deployment of compost bins for source separation has received scant investigation. This study investigated the effects of compost bin design in terms of user design preferences, waste collection and sorting execution, and segregation behavior. The study comprised a survey and an on-site experiment. Design preferences of nine designed compost bins were evaluated by surveying 400 respondents using the pairwise comparison method. It was revealed that design preference was determined by bin shape and slot position. On-site experiments were conducted to establish collection rate, contamination rate, capture rate, and effective capture rate under different conditions. Under the experimental conditions, better segregation rates were observed in comparison with the control condition. The contamination rate was reduced by 55.9%. The capture rate and the effective capture rate were increased by 8.90%, and 53.4%, respectively. The significant effects of design preferences, physical designs, visual prompts, and past behavior were identified via statistical methods. Source-separated waste collection can be improved through preferred compost bin adoption, enhanced design, appropriate visual prompts, and experience in waste segregation. Therefore, the findings of this study will help to generate effective source-separated collection and allow compost bins to be placed in public areas for integrated and sustainable waste management.

Life cycle assessment of the existing and proposed municipal solid waste management system in Moscow, Russia

This study provides the first life cycle assessment (LCA) for municipal solid waste waste management system in one of the largest cities in Europe, Moscow. Its significance stems from recent important changes in the waste management system, the introduction of limited source separate collection in 2020, and the first examination of sorted municipal solid waste (MSW) composition. Moscow city generates 8.1 million tonnes of MSW per year, most of which is still mainly disposed of in landfill sites. The study assesses the current situation, the waste management system planned to be operational by 2024 and proposes improvements to separate collection and treatment of organic waste that could be adopted in the future. In this context, 6 scenarios are compared using LCA based approach. The impacts are presented as global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP) and eutrophication potential (EP). The results show that the existing MSW management system has the highest GWP and AP. Planned changes to the system by 2024 will reduce impacts in all categories. The largest emissions reduction potential is found for refuse-derived fuel (RDF) production and its use in cement kilns as a replacement for coal, which reduces emissions by 1.1 kg CO2-eq/kgRDF and results in a negative AP. The change in EP remains negligible. Separate collection and treatment of biowaste is also beneficial, with anaerobic digestion being the most advantageous treatment method. Nevertheless, even after the implementation of all initiatives, landfill still represents about 53% of direct emissions in GWP. Sensitivity analysis estimated that flaring of landfill gas can reduce GWP from landfill sites by a factor greater than two. With these changes, the total emissions of the system approach zero. Energy recovery at MSW incineration plants and substitution to the grid gives reductions in GWP and EP in the range of 35% and provides especially significant reductions in AP. The waste management system in Moscow accounts for 3% of residents’ carbon footprint, which might drop to 1% if appropriate changes to the system are implemented.

Adoption of sustainable solid waste management and treatment approaches: A case study of Iran.

Developing countries face serious environmental, social and economic challenges when it comes to managing different kinds of solid waste. Iran, as one such country, is forced to deal with many difficulties including the absence of a comprehensive policy framework, a lack of technical know-how, insufficient financial resources and lack of proper disposal facilities. This study attempts to suggest ways to overcome those problems by providing applicable waste management solutions to the local conditions. The research was performed in four structured phases: diagnosis of the existing solid waste management system practised, identification of areas of weakness in the waste management frameworks, bridging the gaps to ensure the sustainability of the concepts offered, and finally the provision of affordable solutions. A source-separated collection system for wet and dry fractions was drawn up. Establishment of a mechanical biological treatment facility and the introduction of biological treatment technology were considered as the main treatment options. From the economic point of view, the extended producer responsibility concept was provided as a resource management tool. The involvement of the stakeholders, as well as the public-private partnership model, was identified as the cornerstone in the planning and implementing of the new approaches. A roadmap was consequently designed aimed at gradually introducing a waste management system in a sustainable and environmentally sound manner.

Potential of Producing Compost from Source-Separated Municipal Organic Waste (A Case Study in Shiraz, Iran)

Developing countries face serious environmental, social and economic challenges in managing different types of organic waste. Proper treatment strategies should be adopted by solid waste management systems in order to address these concerns. Among all of the treatment options for organic waste, composting is the most approved method as an effective strategy to divert solid waste from landfills. This experimental research aimed to examine the potential of producing compost from source-separated municipal organic waste in Shiraz, Iran. Market waste (fruits and vegetables) and garden waste (plant residues) were used as the raw input materials. They were subjected to the windrow pile composting method in an open site area. The process was monitored against several physical, chemical and biological parameters. In-situ measurements (temperature and moisture content) were carried out on a daily basis. Sampling and lab analyses were conducted over the period of the biological treatment. The final product was of acceptable moisture and nutrient levels, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), and Carbon/Nitrogen ratio. All of the analyzed compost samples had lower concentrations of heavy metals than the Iranian and German standards. Overall, the results obtained revealed that composting is a promising method for municipal organic waste treatment. The findings also imply the effectiveness of the source-separation collection method in the production of high-quality compost.

Stakeholder views of source separation collection programme in East São Paulo, Brazil.

The investigation of the views of the stakeholders involved in the municipal solid waste separate collection programme (CP) performed in the East Zone of the city of São Paulo is presented in this paper. Aiming to obtain the necessary information to be analysed, interviews with the manager of the Municipal Urban Cleaning Authority (MUCA) of the city, with leaders of recycling worker cooperatives (WCs), and citizens were performed using semi-structured questionnaires. The analysis was performed using the software "IRAMUTEQ". The results show that, in the view of the manager of the MUCA of the city and the WCs' leaders, the low adhesion of the population to the separate CP is the greatest obstacle to a further expansion of the existing programme. At the same time, the citizens have blamed the low diffusion made by the municipality about the separate CP in the East Zone of São Paulo. Thus, it can be concluded that the separate CP available in the East Zone of São Paulo is still flawed; since neither the public power, the WCs, nor the population are satisfied and point out several flaws. This situation highlights the need to establish better venues for discussion between the population, WCs, and the municipality to jointly design a separate collection system with a more participatory approach.

Increased (Antibiotic-Resistant) Pathogen Indicator Organism Removal during (Hyper-)Thermophilic Anaerobic Digestion of Concentrated Black Water for Safe Nutrient Recovery

Source separated toilet water is a valuable resource for energy and fertilizers as it has a high concentration of organics and nutrients, which can be reused in agriculture. Recovery of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (NPK) decreases the dependency on energy-intensive processes or processes that rely on depleting natural resources. In new sanitation systems, concentrated black water (BW) is obtained by source-separated collection of toilet water. BW-derived products are often associated with safety issues, amongst which pathogens and antibiotic-resistant pathogens. This study presents results showing that thermophilic (55–60 °C) and hyperthermophilic (70 °C) anaerobic treatments had higher (antibiotic-resistant) culturable pathogen indicators removal than mesophilic anaerobic treatment. Hyperthermophilic and thermophilic anaerobic treatment successfully removed Escherichia coli and extended-spectrum β-lactamases producing E. coli from source-separated vacuum collected BW at retention times of 6–11 days and reached significantly higher removal rates than mesophilic (35 °C) anaerobic treatment (p < 0.05). The difference between thermophilic and hyperthermophilic treatment was insignificant, which justifies operation at 55 °C rather than 70 °C. This study is the first to quantify (antibiotic-resistant) E. coli in concentrated BW (10–40 gCOD/L) and to show that both thermophilic and hyperthermophilic anaerobic treatment can adequately remove these pathogen indicators.

Comparison of municipal solid waste treatment capacity in China: a tournament graph method

The amount of municipal solid waste generated has been increasing leaps and bounds in China over the years, causing widespread concern over the society’s capability to manage urban solid waste. Assessing the capacity for urban solid waste treatment has, therefore, become increasingly important. A pilot program focusing on municipal solid waste source-separated collection was launched in China’s eight major cities in 2000. Using the method of coefficient of variation to determine the appropriate index system weight, we developed a tournament graph method to assess and rank the capacity of municipal solid waste treatment across eight pilot cities. The results reveal the following ranking of solid waste treatment capacity: Shanghai, Beijing, Hangzhou, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Nanjing, Xiamen and Guilin. Among the eight cities, Guilin appears the weakest in the capacity of solid waste treatment. The evaluation results are basically consistent with the present situation. In addition, this study found that differences in investment in treatment facilities led to a gap in the quality and quantity of waste treatment equipment, which resulted in widening differences in treatment capacity among the eight pilot cities. The tournament graph method helps identify and understand the strength of the top-ranked pilot cities in municipal solid waste treatment capacity.

A factor analysis of residents’ performance in municipal solid waste source-separated collection: A case study of pilot cities in China

ABSTRACT To explore the potential effectiveness of a localized waste recycling system in Chinese cities, several rounds of a municipal solid waste source-separated collection (MSWSC) program were implemented throughout China from 2000 to 2017. In our study, to evaluate the achievements of the MSWSC program, a structured questionnaire survey and face-to-face interviews were conducted in eight representative cities from the MSWSC pilot cities. Influencing factors were examined via a Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) on both the individual level and the city level. The differences in MSWSC performance among the eight research cities were investigated through a comparative analysis. The results suggested that gender, age, knowledge of MSWSC, satisfaction with sanitation and satisfaction with publicity had significant impacts on MSWSC, and we further found that the city-level factors influenced the relationship between MSWSC performance and the individual-level variables. Differences among the eight research sites indicated that Nanjing and Hangzhou exhibited relatively high achievements in the implementation of MSWSC program, while Yichun and Guiyang showed poor performance. The experiences of these advanced pilot cities suggest that specific containers for designated waste types, widespread public education, and sufficient MSWSC incentives must be provided and publicized to promote municipal solid waste recycling behaviors. Given the unique status of municipal solid waste management in China and its regional heterogeneity, the MSWSC system should be further discussed with regard to local conditions in a wider range of city settings. Implications: This study attempts to discuss the factors affecting performance on municipal solid waste source-separated collection (MSWSC) by considering the nested data of two levels of individual and city from a structured questionnaire survey. Therefore, a Hierarchical Linear Model is established which can analyze the intra-group and inter-group effects of two-level variables. The proposed method can be expanded to other cities to determine the main factors affecting MSWSC or to evaluate the residents’ performance on MSWSC.

Environmental and social life cycle sustainability assessment of different packaging waste collection systems

Considering the social, cultural, economic and environmental structure, source-separated collection of recyclable packaging wastes has been a huge issue for cosmopolite cities like Istanbul. To provide an effective recycling system; all source separation, collection and recycling activities should be analyzed environmentally and socially. In the scope of this study, existing and alternative municipal packaging waste management systems are analyzed and compared in terms of environmental and social impacts. The research is mainly based on a long term site observation, data collection and existing system analysis. Environmental performances of alternative scenarios are calculated based on the existing system data, whereas more site observations and interviews with stakeholders are conducted for the determination of social impacts. In the analysis of both environmental and social impacts of the scenarios, life cycle assessment used as a methodological approach. Results of the study show that informal collection systems are environmentally more effective than the formal collection systems. Even the resource consumption is high in these systems; they are still environmentally beneficial because of the high material collection rate. On the other hand, social impact assessment results indicate that informal collection system has serious social disadvantages compared to the formal systems. And finally, it is found that environmental and social weaknesses of the system could be minimized with integrated system applications.

Environmental performance evolution of municipal solid waste management by life cycle assessment in Hangzhou, China

There is a significant increase in the volume of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) that is being generated across the world. Faced with this challenge and the associated environmental issues, MSW management (MSWM) in Hangzhou, China has made various positive changes in order to adapt. During the last 10 years, MSW source-separated collection was launched, which was accompanied by estimations of a new waste-to-energy (incineration) plant and food waste separate treatment methods. The aim of this study is to investigate the related evolution of the environmental performance of MSWM system in Hangzhou from 2007 to 2016 by using life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA is a scientific tool to quantify factors such as environmental impacts from a life cycle perspective and provides valuable inputs to decision-makers, thus leading to proper strategy determination. Results illustrate that the annual environmental performance has an overall downward trend with some minor fluctuations. The MSWM system in 2010 had the lowest weighted result of 0.0349 PE/t-MSW due to the highest incineration rate and implementation of source-separated collection. Incineration shows better environmental performance than landfill, while source-separated collection can benefit the MSWM. While the importance of source-separated collection is significant, it is also essential to concentrate on the food waste treatment technology. It is suggested that anaerobic digestion (AD) can be considered as a primary option for food waste treatment.

An Exploration of the Impacts of Compulsory Source-Separated Policy in Improving Household Solid Waste-Sorting in Pilot Megacities, China: A Case Study of Nanjing

Source-separated policy is very important for household solid waste (HSW) management in global megacities. The low proportion of source-separated collection has led to a low comprehensive utilization rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) in China. In March 2017, the Chinese government required major cities to fully implement compulsory source-separated systems by 2020. To determine policy impacts and efficiency in improving HSW sorting, the government launched a mandatory MSW source-separated program in Nanjing in November 2016. A household survey was implemented in three types of 11 communities over a period of 10 weeks. The results showed that approximately 52% of the respondents supported the mandatory policy and that household size was the most important sociodemographic factor influencing the support of the source separation policy. Income, gender, age, and knowledge play significant roles in different groups of respondents. This mandatory policy effectively improved the source-separated rate of HSW by 49.7%. Source-separated facilities investment, publicity investment, and special supervision coverage in these communities had significant positive effects on source-separated HSW. Every 1 million CNY investment in source-separated facilities and publicity will increase the source-separated rate of HSW by 1.1%. A 1.0% increase of special supervision coverage in communities can increase the source-separated rate by 3.6%. The findings from this study may help improve source-separated management of HSW for other cities in the future.

An evaluation of the social dimensions in public participation in rural domestic waste source-separated collection in Guilin, China.

A comprehensive evaluation of public participation in rural domestic waste (RDW) source-separated collection in China was carried out within a social-dimension framework, specifically in terms of public perception, awareness, attitude, and willingness to pay for RDW management. The evaluation was based on a case study conducted in Guilin, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, which is a representative of most inland areas of the country with a GDP around the national average. It was found that unlike urban residents, rural residents maintained a high rate of recycling, but in a spontaneous manner; they paid more attention to issues closely related to their daily lives, but less attention to those at the general level; their awareness of RDW source-separated collection was low and different age groups showed significantly different preferences regarding the sources of knowledge acquirement. Among potential information sources, village committees played a very important role in knowledge dissemination; for the respondents' pro-environmental attitudes, the influencing factor of "lack of legislation/policy" was considered to be significant; mandatory charges for waste collection and disposal had a high rate of acceptance among rural residents; and high monthly incomes had a positive correlation with both public pro-environmental attitudes and public willingness to pay for extra charges levied by RDW management. These observations imply that, for decision-makers in the short term, implementing mandatory RDW source-separated collection programs with enforced guidelines and economic compensation is more effective, while in the long run, promoting pro-environmental education to rural residents is more important.

An analysis of influencing factors on municipal solid waste source-separated collection behavior in Guilin, China by Using the Theory of Planned Behavior

Municipal solid waste (MSW) separation at the source is a key determinant in the success of the whole MSW management process in industrializing countries, especially in China. Implementing MSW source-separated collection heavily depends on the participation of householders, which motivates a thorough understanding of major influencing factors. In this paper, an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model was exploited to analyze how householders’ attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and situational factors affected their overall behavior. The approach was applied to a case study in Guilin, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, which is representative of wide areas located in-land with a GDP around the national average. After obtaining 848 valid questionnaire responses in the city, a path analysis was executed. The findings suggest that individuals’ attitude and situational factors are major predictors of their behavioral intention, while perceived behavioral control and intention play an important role in predicting MSW source-separated collection behavior. The implications of these findings on designing communication campaigns and improving waste management programs were also discussed.

Contribution to sustainability and the national economy through recycling waste paper from Istanbul’s hotels in Turkey

Obtaining cellulose from recyclable waste paper contributes to the sustainability of forest resources, water and energy savings, and the reduction of environmental pollution. However, waste paper collected under inappropriate conditions for recycling can be degraded in a short time, thus becoming economically useless. This study examined the factors affecting source-separated collection processes of waste paper in Istanbul hotels, as well as the correlation among these factors. The economic value of the assumed benefits of source-separated waste paper was also calculated. To achieve these objectives, various inputs and methods were used, including the percent tabulation technique and the chi-square independence test. As a result, it was determined that 70% of managers and employees of Istanbul hotels were sensitive to recycling waste paper, but they were not aware of the entire benefits of waste paper recycling. It was also determined that because of waste paper recycling, 18 thousand trees, 5 million kWh of electricity, 3 thousand tons of water, and 1.3 thousand tons of fuel oil were saved, and the generation of 27 thousand tons of CO2 was prevented annually. Hotels in Istanbul provide the economy with an annual average of 752 tons of waste paper, which corresponds to 78% of the foreign trade deficit of Turkey’s paper and paper products sector in the last five years.

Public participation in municipal solid waste source-separated collection in Guilin, China: status and influencing factors

Currently, China is facing critical problems regarding the management of municipal solid waste (MSW). The failure of existing pilot programs in implementing MSW source-separated collection highlights the need to analyze the factors significantly influencing public participation in this activity. To this end, a comprehensive analysis of MSW source-separated collection in Guilin, which is representative of wider areas located in inland China and with a GDP around the national average, was conducted. The research consisted of in-person interviews involving a questionnaire and theoretical analyses in terms of public perception, public awareness, public attitude, and willingness to pay. The analytical results identify the status of waste source-separated collection and influencing factors in implementation, and provides exercisable suggestions for decision makers in both China and more generally in industrializing countries to design promotion programs and education campaigns.

An emergy-LCA analysis of municipal solid waste management

Waste management is a specific practice aimed at reducing the effects of waste materials on the environment and increasing material and energy recovery. The Beijing Municipal Solid Waste Collection and Treatment System has been slow to adopt new technologies capable to enable better treatment results. The aim of the present ecological-economic evaluation of different treatment technologies is to achieve the maximum practical benefits from investments and to ensure the minimum environmental impacts of waste flows based on variable source-separated collection and transportation rates. This paper compared four garbage treatment systems, including separate collection and transportation, sanitary landfills systems, fluidized bed incineration system, and the composting system in Beijing. Results show that as far as the Source Separation Rate (SSR) increased, the yield of recycled materials and sorted waste also rose. High SSR and Separated Transportation Rate (STR) could make recycling more beneficial: however, if more than one approach is applied, it is possible to organize the different steps in a way that minimizes costs and losses. A joint emergy-LCA method is applied in this study to assess the environmental impact of input and output flows and suggest process improvement. The integration offers a way to quantitatively and qualitatively assess costs and benefits, for aware and sound MSW management.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BANJALUKA, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

In this paper life cycle assessment was applied to analyze and evaluate, from an environmental point of view, current and alternatives to the current solid waste management system in Banjaluka region. The current system, which is disposal on landfill, has significant adverse environmental impacts caused by methane emissions from landfill. Therefore, four different scenarios were developed as alternatives to the current waste management system. Landfilling with energy recovery, separate collection of packaging waste, incineration and anaerobic digestion were considered in these scenarios. The functional unit in this study is 100,000 tons which is the amount of municipal waste which is generated within one year in Banjaluka. The assessment in this study was based on results from modelling performed in the EASETECH model. The improvement of gas collection in the current scenario and its utilisation for the purpose of creating energy will have a positive effect on the environment. Increasing separation collection of packaging waste and reducing biodegradable waste will have a positive effect on the environment. The separation and recycling of packaging waste should begin as soon as possible and policies that promote source separated collection should be implemented.

Water conservation significance of municipal solid waste management: a case of Xiamen in China

The increase of municipal solid waste (MSW) with urbanization is causing serious environmental problems as well as resource shortage. Thus, accounting virtual water content of MSW within a city could indicate resource-saving significance of waste management, and can further strengthen integrated policy-making on both resource use and waste management in urban metabolism contexts. However, virtual water saving efforts from recycling MSW are currently lacking in the literature. Therefore, to foster attention on this area, an evaluative framework for virtual water in MSW has been developed for systematic management of resource metabolism. Accumulated virtual water contained in MSW from Xiamen for 2004, 2008 and 2012 was evaluated by process analysis, based on statistical and survey data of MSW. Following the evaluation, we found that efficient management of MSW would improve its recyclability and promote virtual water saving, as observed from the virtual water saving potential of MSW during recycling, which range from 483.9 to 7633.3 m3 tonne−1. Likewise, the total virtual water amount in MSW in Xiamen rapidly increased from 2004 to 2012, total virtual water amount in MSW in Xiamen in 2004 is 2757.9～36750.4×105 m3, total virtual water amount in MSW is 7574.4～68957.2×105 m3 in Xiamen in 2012, as per capita MSW collection went up from 2002 to 2013 slowly. Therefore, encouraging source separation collection of MSW is necessary in relation to decisions regarding sustainable management of MSW and water resources, verified by evidence that per tonne of wastepapers, woods/bamboos, and food remnants contain much higher virtual water than that of other MSW components. Furthermore, integrated water management through production processes of MSW's components has proved important for saving water resources and improving environmental performance, due to the higher water consumption during planting, farming, or growing of raw materials than other processes of production. This is verified by the annual virtual water contained in food remnants, which account for more than 85% of total virtual water discharged with MSW in the selected years, with fish and shrimp taking the dominant part of virtual water content of food remnants. Certainly, MSW recycling would play great role in improving urban water metabolism efficiency as revealed by findings from this study. Hence, accounting for virtual water content of MSW could expand virtual water research field from product trade to MSW management.