Source Routing Research Articles

The V410L kdr allele in the VGSC confers higher levels of field resistance to permethrin in urban mosquito populations of Aedes aegypti (L.).

Females of Aedes aegypti transmit emerging arboviruses including Zika, dengue, yellow fever, and chikungunya. Control of these adult mosquitoes heavily relies on synthetic insecticides, including pyrethroids. However, insecticide resistance development in populations poses a significant challenge to vector control, particularly from knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC), the target of pyrethroids. This study investigated the field efficacy of Permanone, a pyrethroid-based insecticide, against Ae. aegypti by assessing the impact of three common kdr mutations (V410L, V1016I, F1534C) on mosquito survival under a real operational mosquito control scenario, by quantifying the pesticide delivered in the field. Field cage tests (FCTs) were conducted while conducting a realistic mosquito control application. Female mosquitoes from six operational areas from Harris County, TX, USA were exposed to Permanone delivered with a handheld sprayer. Permanone deposited near the cages was estimated from aluminum boats placed in the field during FCTs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Mortality rates were recorded, and individual mosquitoes were genotyped for kdr mutations. A probit regression model was used to analyze the factors influencing mosquito survivorship. As the distance from the application source route increased, the amount of Permanone deposited decreased, resulting in higher survivorship frequency of Ae. aegypti females with the triple-resistant kdr genotype (LL/II/CC). The L allele at the 410-site significantly contributed to an increased resistance level when co-occurring with other kdr mutations. This study linked the survival probabilities of mosquitoes with different kdr genotypes, and the amount of pesticide they received in the field. Pesticide quantification, control efficacy results and genotyping allowed us to empirically determine the impact of genotypic resistance on vector control in the field. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Enhancing Smart City Connectivity: A Multi-Metric CNN-LSTM Beamforming Based Approach to Optimize Dynamic Source Routing in 6G Networks for MANETs and VANETs

Enhancing Smart City Connectivity: A Multi-Metric CNN-LSTM Beamforming Based Approach to Optimize Dynamic Source Routing in 6G Networks for MANETs and VANETs

An Analysis of Routing Protocol in Mobile Adhoc Networks and its Applications

Each hub in a mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) sends parcels bound for different hubs in the network by means of remote (radio transmission) transmission on a wilful premise, making it a self-beginning, powerful network made up of mobile hubs. Multi-bounce transferring is the essential inspiration for the advancement of ad hoc networking. Remote Ad hoc networks, otherwise called foundation less networks, can be set up rapidly and effectively using radio waves as the network's transmission channel. There is no principal server or referee in an ad hoc network. Every hub in a MANET is fit for playing out its own networking errands, for example, routing and bundle sending, in a decentralized and independent style. Uses of routing protocols like Ad hoc On-request Distance Routing Protocol (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Transiently Requested Routing Calculation (TORA), and Enhanced Connection State Routing (OLSR) are fascinating in light of the fact that routing is the focal issue in MANETs. These routing protocols are simulated using OPNET, and their effectiveness is investigated using various metrics. With the use of metrics, the most efficient channel for data transfer can be determined. The results demonstrate the viability of AODV and TORA for topology-changing in large-scale networks using a variety of criteria.

Burkholderia cenocepacia ST-250 in cystic fibrosis patients in Switzerland: Genomic investigation of transmission routes

This report describes the characterization of Burkholderia cenocepacia isolates belonging to sequence type (ST)-250, detected in eight patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) in Switzerland. We retrospectively analyzed 18 isolates of B. cenocepacia ST-250 isolated between 2003 and 2015 by whole-genome sequencing and evaluated clinical and epidemiological data. Single nucleotide polymorphism analysis of the B.°cenocepacia ST-250 lineage showed that the isolates from all patients cluster tightly, suggesting that this cluster has a recent common ancestor. Epidemiological investigations showed that six out of eight patients acquired B.°cenocepacia ST-250 in the years 2001-2006, where participation in CF summer camps was common. Two patients were siblings. Genomic relatedness of the B. cenocepacia ST-250 isolates supported transmission by close contact, however, a common source or nosocomial routes cannot be excluded. With respect to the fatal outcome in six patients, our study shows the importance of infection control measurements in CF patients with B.°cenocepacia.

Emergence of Bluetongue Virus Serotype 3, the Netherlands, September 2023.

Since 1998, notifiable bluetongue virus (BTV) serotypes 1-4, 6, 8, 9, 11, and 16 have been reported in Europe. In August 2006, a bluetongue (BT) outbreak caused by BTV serotype 8 began in northwestern Europe. The Netherlands was declared BT-free in February 2012, and annual monitoring continued. On September 3, 2023, typical BT clinical manifestations in sheep were notified to the Netherlands Food and Product Safety Consumer Authority. On September 6, we confirmed BTV infection through laboratory diagnosis; notifications of clinical signs in cattle were also reported. We determined the virus was serotype 3 by whole-genome sequencing. Retrospective analysis did not reveal BTV circulation earlier than September. The virus source and introduction route into the Netherlands remains unknown. Continuous monitoring and molecular diagnostic testing of livestock will be needed to determine virus spread, and new prevention strategies will be required to prevent BTV circulation within the Netherlands and Europe.

Sleuthing the performance of the sustainable mixed metal trichalogenide BaS:Sn2S3:LaS from single source route as an electrode material for charge storage

A novel ternary transition and lanthanide metal composite sulfide (Ba, Sn, and La) has been developed using a single-source precursor method with diethyldithiocarbamate ligand. The resulting BaS:Sn2S3:LaS chalcogenide exhibits a finely tuned band gap of 3.88 eV, reflecting its superior optical performance. This eco-friendly sulfide features an average crystalline size of 17.93 nm and displays a mix of phases. Vibrational analysis reveals distinct transmission peaks corresponding to metal-sulfur bonds. Morphologically, BaS:Sn2S3:LaS composite is characterized by irregularly shaped particles forming a randomly agglomerated mass. The electrochemical charge storage properties of the semiconducting trichalcogenide BaS:Sn2S3:LaS have been investigated using cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge-discharge, and impedance spectroscopy. BaS:Sn2S3:LaS electrode demonstrated impressive performance, storing electrical charge efficiently with a specific capacity of 659.6 F g⁻1 and achieving a power density of up to 3661.65 W kg⁻1. Additionally, the electrode exhibited low resistance, with an equivalent series resistance (Rs) of just 0.43 Ω, indicating efficient ion diffusion across the interface. Given its excellent redox activity and low resistance, BaS:Sn2S3:LaS shows strong potential as an electrode material for supercapacitors and batteries.

Implementation of 802.11ax and cell-free massive MIMO scenario for 6G wireless network analysis extending OMNeT++ simulator

In an era where ubiquitous connectivity and escalating data demands are altering the landscape of wireless communications, our paper proposes a pioneering enhancement for the OMNeT++ simulator to support the advanced features of IEEE 802.11ax high efficiency (HE) alongside cell-free massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems. Traditional wireless networks face daunting challenges in sustaining elevated quality of service (QoS), primarily due to fluctuating user densities and signal quality. Cell-free massive MIMO serves as a compelling answer to this predicament by decentralizing the cellular architecture. It eradicates conventional cell boundaries, furnishing uniform QoS regardless of user locations. However, these advancements come at the expense of complex backhaul networks and articulated joint signal processing. The 802.11ax standard, touted for its robustness and efficiency, remains underexplored in this new paradigm. Our research not only dissects the architectural elements and constraints of both 802.11ax and cell-free massive MIMO but also elaborates on the adaptations required to extend OMNeT++ functionalities for these technologies. By doing so, we bridge a crucial gap, enabling the simulator to provide a more precise, detailed, and scalable evaluation of emerging 6G scenarios and directional communications also taking into account the impact of the most known routing protocols such as dynamic source routing (DSR), ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing (AODV), optimized link state routing (OLSR), and dynamic mobile ad hoc network on-demand (DYMO) that were selected for this comparative study. The proposed extensions promise to revolutionize network simulations and lay the foundation for in-depth analyses of wireless systems in complex and dynamic environments. Through extensive simulations, our study demonstrates that cell-free massive MIMO configurations significantly improve network throughput in high-density mobile ad hoc network (MANET) environments, with results indicating an average throughput gain of up to 30% compared with non-cell-free configurations. This improvement highlights the efficacy of cell-free massive MIMO to take advantage of the spatial and frequency multiplexing capabilities inherent in the 802.11ax standard, making it a promising solution for future wireless systems in densely populated areas.

Extended Comparison and Performance Analysis for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks Routing Protocols Based on Different Traffic Load Patterns and Performance Metrics

A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a network of mobile nodes that dynamically form a transitory network lacking any existence of infrastructure and any form of centralized management. Nodes in ad hoc networks are powered by batteries with a limited lifespan and communicate in a restricted bandwidth. The unpredictable environment of a MANET may run into a major concern in the routing mechanism, therefore the need for a routing protocol with robust performance is still one of the key challenges in MANET deployment. In this work, a comparative comparison and extensive simulation analysis have been carried out for three major routing protocols: destination sequenced distance vector (DSDV), dynamic source routing (DSR) and ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV). Protocol evaluation has been extended by considering several simulation arrangements, different classes of traffic load patterns and diverse performance metrics. Based on packet rate change, node quantity and node speed, simulation scenarios were generated. Protocols were investigated against energy consumption, throughput, lost packets, routing load and packet delivery fraction for three types of traffic load patterns regular, irregular and joint traffic. DSR and AODV protocols proved to be more reliable when joint traffic was implemented when node speed and packets variations are considered. DSDV protocol verifies outstanding response over other protocols in terms of energy consumption when either regular or irregular traffic is applied. The simulation results for DSR protocol have verified the superiority over other protocols in 9 simulation scenarios when diverse metrics are considered. DSDV showed optimal performance in 7 cases, especially at low packet rates and in networks with minimum number of nodes. Similarly, AODV protocol showed outstanding performance in 6 scenarios, when higher packet rates and node mobility are considered.

Adaptive Location-based Routing Protocols for Dynamic Wireless Sensor Networks in Urban Cyber-physical Systems

This study investigates the development and enhancement of adaptive location-based routing protocols within dynamic wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in urban cyber-physical systems, recommending the implementation of the study’s innovative Urban Adaptive Location-based Routing Protocol (UALRP). This innovative protocol integrates real-time data analytics and adaptive machine learning models into its algorithmic framework to dynamically optimize routing decisions based on continuously changing urban conditions. Through the utilization of data-driven simulation models and machine learning techniques, the research sought to significantly improve the efficiency, reliability, and scalability of urban WSNs. Existing protocols such as Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF), Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR), and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) were critically assessed under urban settings using extensive datasets detailing New York City's traffic patterns and environmental variables. The analysis demonstrated that while GPSR showed superior performance in terms of latency, throughput, and energy efficiency among the traditional protocols, the introduction of UALRP, with its advanced predictive and adaptive capabilities, can further optimize these metrics. The study affirms the critical role of enhancing location accuracy and the ongoing advancement of machine learning models within urban routing protocols. These insights advocate for the broader implementation of adaptive strategies like UALRP to foster the development of more resilient and efficient urban cyber-physical systems.

Space-use strategy drives fine-scale spatial variation of chlorinated paraffins in indo-pacific humpback dolphins

Contaminant accumulation in organisms can be influenced by both biological traits and environmental conditions. However, delineating the main factors affecting contaminant burdens in organisms remains challenging. Here, we conducted an initial investigation into the impact of diet and habitat on the accumulation of short- (SCCPs) and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) in Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (2003–2020, n = 128) from the Pearl River Estuary (PRE), a highly polluted estuary in China. The detected levels of SCCPs (5897 ± 3480 ng g−1 lw) and MCCPs (13,960 ± 8285 ng g−1 lw) in blubber samples of humpback dolphin are the highest among recorded values marine mammals. Both SCCPs and MCCPs exhibited biomagnification factor values exceeding 1, suggesting their biomagnification potential within the dolphins and their diet. Quantitative diet analysis using the dolphin fatty acid signatures revealed that humpback dolphins inhabiting the western PRE consumed a larger proportion of carnivorous fish than those from the eastern PRE. However, spatial analysis showed that humpback dolphins in the western PRE contained lower SCCP/MCCP concentrations than those from the eastern PRE. Based on these findings we suggest that, compared to diet differences, spatial variations of SCCPs/MCCPs in humpback dolphins may be predominantly influenced by their space-use strategies, as the eastern PRE is closer to the pollutant discharge source and transfer routes.

Efficient multicast forwarding in low power and lossy networks under RPL non‐storing mode

SummaryThe Internet of Things (IoT) continues to find novel applications across various domains. These applications require the support of efficient communication protocols in the Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs). The development of efficient multicast protocols is one such area that requires critical research attention. Efficient multicast protocols are especially important in the non‐storing mode of IPv6 Routing Protocol for LLNs (RPL), considering its applicability in real‐world IoT applications. However, the development of non‐storing RPL multicast protocols needs to handle the intricacies associated with source routing. Addressing these issues, this paper presents a novel multicast protocol named Multicast Forwarding in LLNs under Non‐storing mode (MFLN). MFLN uses Bloom Filters to minimize the overhead that comes with source routing. While retaining the best features of multicast protocols operating in the storing mode of RPL such as bidirectional traffic and cross‐layer optimization with ContikiMAC, MFLN also includes a novel metric named Mode Selection Metric (MSM) to decide the suitable link‐layer forwarding method. MSM makes this decision based on the ability of a node, in terms of its residual energy, to perform multiple link‐layer unicasts. Thus, MFLN saves the node battery from running out and at the same time reduces the duplicate packets created due to link‐layer broadcasts. The simulations conducted using Contiki‐COOJA indicate considerable improvements in terms of packet delivery ratio, energy consumption per delivered packet, packet transmissions, end‐to‐end delay, and normalized routing overhead for the proposed protocol.

Secure Routing and Hybrid SqueezenetFQuantumNN for Intrusion Detection in MANET

An efficient Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is essential to secure Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) against malevolent attacks. The present IDS still faces challenges in enhancing detection accuracy and in decreasing the false alarm rate. To overcome the above issues, a secure routing protocol for intrusion detection in MANET has been proposed here. In the proposed model, initially, MANET is simulated, which is followed by routing based on Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) routing protocol. Then, intrusion detection is done at Base Station (BS). At the BS, the log files are acquired from the dataset at first and it is normalized using Quintile normalization to transform the data into a structured form. Then, the desired features are selected in the feature selection phase using Wave–Hedges metrics for removing redundant and irrelevant data. Finally, intrusion detection is performed using the proposed hybrid SqueezenetFQuantum Neural Network (SqueezenetFQuantumNN) which is devised by the fusion of Squeeze Net and Quantum Neural Network (QuantumNN). The effectiveness of the proposed SqueezenetFQuantumNN is measured depending on evaluation metrics and is found to attain accuracy of 95.72%, True Positive Rate (TPR) of 93.42%, and True Negative Rate (TNR) of 91.39%.

Improving the Scalability of Data Center Networking with Protocol-independent Source Routing

Improving the Scalability of Data Center Networking with Protocol-independent Source Routing

Phenotypic and genomic analysis of bacteria from war wounds in Dnipro, Ukraine.

To better understand the source and potential transmission routes of antibiotic-resistant bacteria infecting injured service members in Ukraine. Phenotypic and genomic characterizations were performed on 11 Gram-negative pathogens cultured from war wounds at an intermediate evacuation hospital in Dnipro. The analysis revealed both susceptible and extensively drug-resistant strains present in cultures, including high-risk global clones carrying carbapenemases. Globally distributed carbapenemase-producing lineages are being acquired early in the medical evacuation process.

Genomic analysis of an outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O183:H18 in the United Kingdom, 2023.

In June 2023, UKHSA surveillance systems detected an outbreak of severe gastrointestinal symptoms caused by a rare serotype of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli, STEC O183:H18. There were 26 cases aged 6 months to 74 years (42 % cases were aged 0-9 years), distributed across the UK with onset dates range between 22 May 2023 and 4 July 2023. The epidemiological and food chain investigations were inconclusive, although meat products made from beef mince were implicated as a potential vehicle. The outbreak strain belonged to sequence type (ST) 657 and harboured a Shiga toxin (stx) subtype stx2a located on a prophage that was unique in the UKHSA stx-encoding bacteriophage database. Plasmid encoded, putative virulence genes subA, ehxA, saa, iha, lpfA and iss were detected, however, the established STEC virulence genes involved in attachment to the gut mucosa (eae and aggR) were absent. The acquisition of stx across the global population structure of ST657 appeared to correspond with the presence of subA, ehxA, saa, iha, lpfA and iss. During the outbreak investigation, we used long read sequencing to characterise the plasmid and prophage content of this atypical STEC, to look for evidence to explain its recent emergence. Although we were unable to determine source and transmission route of the outbreak strain, the genomic analysis revealed potential clues as to how novel strains for STEC evolve. With the implementation of PCR capable of detecting all STEC, and genome sequencing for typing and virulence profiling, we have the tools to enable us to monitor the changing landscape of STEC. Improvements in the standardised collection of epidemiological data and trace-back strategies within the food industry, will ensure we have a surveillance system capable of alerting us to emerging threats to public health.

Remarkably High Internal Transcribed Spacer Haplotype Diversity of the Fungal Select Agent Coniothyrium glycines Discovered Throughout Its Range in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Red leaf blotch of soybean, caused by the fungus Coniothyrium glycines, is a foliar disease characterized by blotching, necrosis, and defoliation that has only been reported from Africa. The species is listed as a Select Agent by the Federal Select Agent Program due to its potentially devastating impacts to soybean production should it spread to the United States. Despite its potential import, very few isolates are available for study. Herein, we obtained 96 new C. glycines isolates from six soybean-producing countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Along with 12 previously collected ones, we sequenced each at the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Between all isolates, we identified a total of 28 single-nucleotide polymorphisms and 23 haplotypes. One hypothesis to explain the tremendous diversity uncovered at the ITS-which is generally conserved within a species-is that our current species concept of C. glycines is too broad and that there may be multiple species that cause red leaf blotch. Zambia contained the highest haplotype diversity, a significant fraction of which remains unsampled. Most haplotypes were specific to a single country, except for two, which were found in Zambia and either neighboring Mozambique or Zimbabwe. This geographic specificity indicates that the ITS region may be useful for identifying source populations or routes of transmission should this pathogen spread beyond Africa. The observed geographic partitioning of this pathogen is likely the result of millions of years of replication on little-studied native hosts, given that soybean has only been cultivated in Africa since the early 1900s.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PROACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (DSDV, OLSR) & REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (AODV, DSR) IN MANET USING NS-3

The abstract outlines a comprehensive analysis focusing on routing protocols in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs). Ad-hoc networks are dynamic wireless networks without a central infrastructure. This analysis compares two types of routing protocols—proactive (table-driven) and reactive (on-demand)—using simulation analysis. The protocols DSDV, OLSR, AODV, and DSR are evaluated using NS-3, considering various performance metrics under different scenarios. The research aims to provide insights into protocol strengths and weaknesses, aiding network protocol selection and potential enhancements. This investigation contributes to understanding routing behaviours in ever-changing MANETs, benefiting network design and optimization efforts. Keywords: MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network), DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector), OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing), AODV (Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing), Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Genomic analysis of inter-hospital transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium sequence type 80 isolated during an outbreak in Hiroshima, Japan.

Outbreaks caused by vancomycin-resistant enterococci that transcend jurisdictional boundaries are occurring worldwide. This study focused on a vancomycin-resistant enterococcus outbreak that occurred between 2018 and 2021 across two cities in Hiroshima, Japan. The study involved genetic and phylogenetic analyses using whole-genome sequencing of 103 isolates of vancomycin-resistant enterococci to identify the source and transmission routes of the outbreak. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using core genome multilocus sequence typing and core single-nucleotide polymorphisms; infection routes between hospitals were inferred using BadTrIP. The outbreak was caused by Enterococcus faecium sequence type (ST) 80 carrying the vanA plasmid, which was derived from strain A10290 isolated in India. Of the 103 isolates, 93 were E. faecium ST80 transmitted across hospitals. The circular vanA plasmid of the Hiroshima isolates was similar to the vanA plasmid of strain A10290 and transferred from E. faecium ST80 to other STs of E. faecium and other Enterococcus species by conjugation. The inferred transmission routes across hospitals suggest the existence of a central hospital serving as a hub, propagating vancomycin-resistant enterococci to multiple hospitals. Our study highlights the importance of early intervention at the key central hospital to prevent the spread of the infection to small medical facilities, such as nursing homes, with limited medical resources and a high number of vulnerable individuals.

Risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 transmission during a movie theater outbreak in Incheon in the Republic of Korea, November 2021: a retrospective study.

We examined factors contributing to the transmission of an acute respiratory virus within multi-use facilities, focusing on an outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in a movie theater in the Republic of Korea. This retrospective cohort study involved a descriptive analysis of 48 confirmed cases. Logistic regression was applied to a cohort of 80 theater attendees to identify risk factors for infection. The infection source and transmission route were determined through gene sequencing data analysis. Of the 48 confirmed cases, 35 were theater attendees (72.9%), 10 were family members of attendees (20.8%), 2 were friends (4.2%), and 1 was an employee (2.1%). Among the 80 individuals who attended the 3rd to 5th screenings of the day, 35 became infected, representing a 43.8% attack rate. Specifically, 28 of the 33 third-screening attendees developed confirmed SARSCoV-2, constituting an 84.8% attack rate. Furthermore, 11 of the 12 cases epidemiologically linked to the theater outbreak were clustered monophyletically within the AY.69 lineage. At the time of the screening, 35 individuals (72.9%) had received 2 vaccine doses. However, vaccination status did not significantly influence infection risk. Multivariate analysis revealed that close contacts had a 15.9-fold higher risk of infection (95% confidence interval, 4.37-78.39) than casual contacts. SARS-CoV-2 transmission occurred within the theater, and extended into the community, via a moviegoer who attended the 3rd screening during the viral incubation period after contracting the virus from a family member. This study emphasizes the importance of adequate ventilation in theaters.

TABDeep: A two-level action branch architecture-based deep reinforcement learning for distributed sub-tree scheduling of online multicast sessions in EON

The surge in demand for multimedia applications has brought a great pressure on network bandwidth resources. In order to improve the efficiency of bandwidth resource usage and ensure the transmission quality of multicast sessions, it is very urgent to effectively schedule online multicast sessions. To do so, in this paper, we study the distributed sub-tree scheduling problem of online multicast sessions in elastic optical network (EON). First, we model the problem as a Markov Decision Process (MDP) by defining state, action and reward. Second, a two-level action branch architecture-based deep reinforcement learning (TABDeep) algorithm is proposed to realize the destination node grouping, source node selection, route establishment and spectrum assignment of multicast sessions. Finally, to test the superiority of TABDeep, we construct a series of simulation experiments to compare TABDeep with a link-aware distributed steiner sub-tree benchmark algorithm (LA-DSST). The experimental results confirm that TABDeep performs better than LA-DSST in reducing the blocking probability of the session.