Low-grade Heat Sources Research Articles

Numerical Simulation of an Indirect Contact Mobilized Thermal Energy Storage Container with Different Tube Bundle Layout and Fin Structure

The great development of energy storage technology and energy storage materials will make an important contribution to energy saving, reducing emissions and improving energy utilization efficiency. Mobile thermal energy storage (M-TES) technology finds a way to realize value for low-grade heat sources far beyond the demand side. In this paper, an indirect-contact M-TES container is studied using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method. By optimizing the heat exchange tube bundle layout and the installed fin structure of the shell and tube type M-TES container, a method of enhancing the charging and discharging efficiency is identified. The peripheral distribution mode of the heat exchanger tubes improves the efficiency of heat charging by 12.6% compared with the traditional uniform layout. The installation of the Y-shaped fins can improve the heat charging efficiency by 8.3%, better than straight fins. Compared with the horizontal installation of Y-shaped fins, the vertical installation of Y-shaped fins is preferred to improve the heat charging efficiency of the M-TES container.

Modified Electrospun Membranes Using Different Nanomaterials for Membrane Distillation.

Obtaining fresh drinking water is a challenge directly related to the change in agricultural, industrial, and societal demands and pressure. Therefore, the sustainable treatment of saline water to get clean water is a major requirement for human survival. In this review, we have detailed the use of electrospun nanofiber-based membranes (ENMs) for water reclamation improvements with respect to physical and chemical modifications. Although membrane distillation (MD) has been considered a low-cost water reclamation process, especially with the availability of low-grade waste heat sources, significant improvements are still required in terms of preparing efficient membranes with enhanced water flux, anti-fouling, and anti-scaling characteristics. In particular, different types of nanomaterials have been explored as guest molecules for electrospinning with different polymers. Nanomaterials such as metallic organic frameworks (MOFs), zeolites, dioxides, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), etc., have opened unprecedented perspectives for the implementation of the MD process. The integration of nanofillers gives appropriate characteristics to the MD membranes by changing their chemical and physical properties, which significantly enhances energy efficiency without impacting the economic costs. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art status, the opportunities, open challenges, and pitfalls of the emerging field of modified ENMs using different nanomaterials for desalination applications.

Unsteady and three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics modelling of scroll expander for low-grade waste heat recovery transcritical carbon dioxide micro-scale power system

Recent developments in the field of renewable energy have led to a renewed interest in low-grade heat (< 500 K). The low-grade heat is widely wasted by the lack of efficient heat recovery technologies. It is also limited by the system size, which defines as the micro to small-scale (< 50 kW). Although ORC based unit has been implemented in this field, the CO2 based waste heat recovery units can be more capable in the size construction. The performance of the expander plays a vital role in the system’s efficiency. Thus, the current paper provides thermodynamic and CFD analysis of a scroll expander regarding a micro-scale T-CO2 recovery system (< 10 kW) with a 400 K low-grade heat source. In the current CFD model, all the fluid domains were constructed by structural mesh. It also successfully integrated with the thermodynamic table to simulate two-phase T-CO2. This model can be the first scroll expander model for T-CO2 power system and gap the bridge of utilising the scroll machinery in this field. The CFD methodology was successfully validated by the new-built testing platform and previous data. The energy performance of T-CO2 and ORC (R123) based scroll expanders are compared by isentropic and exergy efficiency. The results showed that isentropic and exergy efficiencies of T-CO2 were 7% and 14% higher than the R123. It also identified higher irreversibilities of T-CO2 by the exergy of the working fluids. The pressure and temperature distributions identified the over-expansion and reversed flow characteristics, and the pressure imbalance of the initial expansion chambers denoted the reversed flow.

Performance evaluation of modified compound organic Rankine-vapour compression cycle with two cooling levels, heating, and power generation

This work analyses a novel combined organic Rankine-compound ejector vapour compression cycle for power, cooling and heating production using a low-grade ground heat source as the primary heat source. Ultra-low global warming potential working fluids (R1234ze(E), R1243zf, and R1234yf) and parameters quantifying energy and exergy efficiency are considered. The system can be adapted to three operating modes, depending on the ground source temperature, ranging from 55 to 90 °C: power-cooling, power-heat pump heating, and power-ground source heating. The results indicate that this system notably increases the overall performance of all investigated refrigerants. Compared to conventional organic Rankine and vapour compression cycles (ORC and VCC), the R1234ze(E) power-cooling mode shows the highest coefficient of performance (COP) increase, 18 %. Besides, including a recapture heat exchanger for condenser waste heat recovery can increase power generation by 58 %. At ground source temperatures up to 65 ℃, power generation and thermal efficiency increased in the power-heating mode due to the absence of the compressor power consumption. The exergy efficiency follows the ground source temperatures for all modes. In power-ground source heating mode, the exergy efficiency notably increased due to the absence of the heat pump exergy destruction.

Thermodynamic Analysis of the Low-Grade Heat Sources for the Improvement in Efficiency of Oxy–Fuel Combustion Power Cycles

Today, most of the electrical energy in the world is generated by fossil fuel incineration. This causes significant emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. The noted problem can be solved by switching to power plants with zero emissions, operating in semi-closed cycles, and producing electricity through oxygen combustion of fuel. A significant drawback of most of the known oxygen–fuel cycles is the lack of useful utilization of various sources of low-grade heat, which is especially typical for power plants operating on gasified coal fuel; as a result of the gasification process, a significant amount of excess heat is released into the atmosphere. This paper presents the results of the development and study of oxygen–fuel cycle thermal schemes of increased efficiency with coal gasification. It was determined that the modernization of the scheme using the carbon dioxide Rankine cycle for the utilization of low-grade heat makes it possible to achieve an increase in the net electrical efficiency equal to 1.2%.

Experimentally Identifying the Influences of Key Parameters for an Organic Rankine Cycle Using R123

As an efficient energy conversion technology, the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) has been widely applied in medium- and low-grade heat sources. In order to explore the experimental performance of ORC and reveal the effects of operation parameters, an experimental setup was built and R123 was selected as the working fluid. In the experiments, the heat source temperature as well as the mass flow rates of the working fluid and cooling water were controlled. Under the design conditions, the net work and cycle efficiency can, respectively, reach up to 0.55 kW and 8.7%. As for the influences of key parameters, with the increase in heat source temperature from 130 °C to 160 °C, the involved heat has a small increase, while the net work increases from 0.44 kW to 0.55 kW, and the cycle efficiency greatly increases from 6.71% to 8.72% at a mass flow rate of working fluid 25 g/s. As for the mass flow rate of cooling water, it has a similar impact on the cycle performances. The difference is that the effect of the cooling water rate is relatively smaller. At the mass flow rate 25 g/s, when the cooling water rate increases from 0.68 kg/s to 0.83 kg/s, the net work varies from 0.46 kW to 0.55 kW, the cycle efficiency increases in the range 7.41~9.4%. Furthermore, except cycle efficiency, all performances are proportional to the mass flow rate of working fluid. In the test range, the difference of cycle efficiency among different mass flow rates is less than 0.7%.

Drying Characteristics and Odor Concentration in Tail Gas in Vacuum Drying of Municipal Sewage Sludge

As one of the most common solid wastes, municipal sewage sludge needs to be dried before its disposal and resource reuse. In this study, the effects of vacuum degree, heat source temperature and sludge thickness on drying rate and odor concentration in tail gas were studied through orthogonal experiments carried out on the lab-scale vacuum heat-conductive sludge drying device; The effects of heat source temperature on drying rate and odor concentration in tail gas were studied through comparative experiments of atmospheric state and vacuum state (-0.08MPa). The results show that the sludge thickness is the main factor affecting the sludge static drying rate, and the vacuum degree is the main factor affecting the odor concentration in the tail gas of sludge static drying. Under vacuum state (-0.08MPa), sludge can be dried efficiently while using low-grade heat source. In addition, while maintaining a high drying rate, the odor concentration in the tail gas will also be significantly reduced by reducing the generation of volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs).

Analysis of multi-cylinder type liquid piston Stirling cooler

The development of cooling technology driven by low-grade heat sources and having a straightforward structure is crucial for various cooling needs in rural areas. For this purpose, a multi-cylinder type liquid piston Stirling cooler was investigated. It consisted of unit sections connected in a ring shape. Each unit section, which can function either as an engine or cooler unit, was made from a water column in a U-shaped tube and an air-filled tube installed with a regenerator and a pair of heat exchangers. The cooling performance and its relationship with acoustic fields were evaluated numerically and experimentally. When using a single cooler unit configuration, the lowest cooling temperature reached −2°C with a heating temperature of 218 °C. The cooling power of 23.5 W and coefficient of performance of 0.19 were achieved at a cooling temperature of 20 °C with the same heating temperature in the case of the two cooler unit configuration. These results were obtained by adjusting the liquid column level in the U tube at certain unit sections. The correlation between the improvement in cooling performance and the associated acoustic field modification was investigated based on the breakdown and recovery of the symmetry of the acoustic fields. In addition, a cooler box was made to demonstrate the possible application of the heat-driven cooler. The result showed that the temperature inside the cooler box achieved 3.6–6.6 °C. This study presents a new cooling technology suitable for multiple cooling purposes in rural areas.

Process analysis of temperature swing adsorption and temperature vacuum swing adsorption in VOCs recovery from activated carbon

• The adsorption process of TSA and TVSA for VOCs in waste gas was studied, and the parameters of process purification and recovery of VOCs were discussed. • The dynamic adsorption experiment was completed,The adsorption isotherm of benzene on activated carbon was determined. • A mathematical model was established to simulate the process of TSA and TVSA. • The initial range of the optimal hot-cold purge ratio is determined. • The influence of vacuum step on adsorption and desorption step is discussed. • Under the condition of low grade heat source, TVSA will be an environmental protection process. In order to better guide the design of industrial process for purification and recovery of VOCs, Temperature swing adsorption (TSA) and Temperature vacuum swing adsorption (TVSA) process for VOCs purification and recovery were studied systematically with activated carbon adsorbent. The adsorption and desorption behaviors of benzene on activated carbon in above two processes were investigated systematically. Effects of operating parameters on process performances were further analyzed, including as regeneration temperature, purging feed ratio and hot-cold purging ratio. The results showed that the increase of hot-cold purging ratio (HP/CP) could obtain the same regeneration effect as the increase of desorption temperature. Increasing the feed purge ratio without increasing the hot-cold purging ratio is not conducive to bed regeneration, because a large number of cold purge gases cannot utilize the residual heat of temperature wave, thus reducing the desorption effect of the cooling step on the bed. In addition, the vacuum step can enhance the regeneration ability of hot nitrogen to the bed at the same regeneration temperature, making the bed regeneration of TVSA process more thorough. Temperature in the middle and lower part of the bed in TVSA process was higher and the regeneration was more thorough. In conclusion, TVSA has more obvious advantages than TSA in terms of energy consumption, hot or cold purge volume and bed regeneration.

Semaver ile Entegre Termovoltaik Gerilim Kaynağı

Renewable energy sources are becoming very important in today’s World. Waste heat from industrial processes is very common in the world and such sources can be used to obtain electric power. Thermovoltaic power sources are getting cheaper and their electrical power output is getting higher due to technological developments. They have been used with waste heat sources such as hot water flowing out of factories and to obtain electrical sources. Nowadays, new application areas of thermovoltaic power sources are being looked for. Samovars, which burn brushwood, are pretty commonly used in rural areas to prepare warm drinks such as tea. Samovars only supply thermal power to boil water and they can be regarded as low-grade heat sources since they release a considerable amount of heat to the ambiance. Integrating a thermovoltaic power source onto a samovar would turn it into a voltage source and also increase its overall energy efficiency. Such a system may allow charging batteries of low power loads such as flashlights and cell phones in rural areas where it is hard to reach the electrical grid. In this study, a thermovoltaic power source is integrated with a samovar for the first time in the literature and the performance of such a system is experimentally inspected. It has been found that the system’s electrical power output is low, the air convection around the semiconductor pairs of the module may be contributing to its low power performance, and a more complex system model is needed to model it accurately.

Оцінка потенціалу джерел низькопотенційної теплоти для теплонасосних установок систем централізованого теплопостачання

Methodology and calculation formulas are proposed for estimating the thermal potential and its distribution by the regions of Ukraine for natural and artificial (anthropogenic) low-grade heat sources: ambient air, ventilation emissions of buildings connected to district heating systems, soils and groundwater, large rivers, wastewater, waste heat of boilers and CHPs, and industrial waste heat. The availability of thermal potential of these sources for heat pump plants of district heating systems has been determined. Annual heat potential and average annual capacity were estimated for each of these sources. It is shown that the annual heat potential and average annual capacity available for heat pump plants in district heating systems are: 9,735 thous. Gcal and 905 MW for ambient air; 25,655 thous. Gcal and 1,871 MW for ventilation emissions of buildings; 2,628 thous. Gcal and 87 MW for soil and groundwater; 3,212 thous. Gcal and 299 MW for large rivers; 4,545 thous. Gcal and 338 MW for wastewater; 2,459 thous. Gcal and 724 MW for waste heat of boilers and CHPs; 7,661 thous. Gcal and 214 MW for industrial waste heat, respectively. The total thermal potential of the above-mentioned sources is 4.97 GW which enables the use of heat pump plants in district heating systems with a total capacity of about 7.5 GW. In the case of heat pump plants using low grade heat sources of natural origin, it must be taken into account that their intensive use can lead to their rapid thermal exhaustion and a significant impact on the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain such level of energy use of natural low grade heat sources that would enable their exploitation without harming the environment. In the conditions of densely built-up cities of Ukraine, the use of heat of the soil and groundwater for heat pump plants will be limited due to the shortage of free land plots. It will also be problematic to use powerful air heat pump plants in populated areas due to their high noise level. Keywords: heat pump plant, district heating systems, low grade heat source, thermal potential

Research on thermoacoustic refrigeration system driven by waste heat of industrial buildings

Industrial production process continuously produces a large amount of stable waste heat, which has great potential for recovery and utilization. As a new energy conversion and utilization technology, thermoacoustic technology has a good application prospect in low-grade heat sources utilization, with advantages of simple structure, long service life and low cost, and can be applied in waste heat recovery field. The current thermoacoustic studies pay more attention to the improvement of thermoacoustic conversion efficiency. Power output should be considered while paying attention to efficiency in the field of engineering application. The thermoacoustic refrigeration system proposed in this paper uses waste heat generated in industrial buildings to regulate indoor temperature. Based on the theory of traveling-standing wave acoustic field, a design concept of thermoacoustic system was proposed, that is, two thermoacoustic cores are placed on both sides of the high impedance zero phase position to limit the high impedance zero phase phenomenon at the independent thermoacoustic core position. On the basis of this study, the topology of thermoacoustic refrigeration system operating in traveling-standing wave phase was proposed. A two-stage thermoacoustic engine/refrigerator coupled loop structure was adopted to realize the traveling-standing wave acoustic field through the non-uniform alternate distribution of thermoacoustic units. Based on the topology, numerical simulation and system optimization were carried out, and an experimental prototype was set up for experimental studies. The experimental results show good consistency with the simulation results. Under the condition of no load, the lowest cooling temperature reached by thermoacoustic refrigerator is −12℃, and the maximum cooling capacity is 0.95 kW. This study shows that the thermoacoustic refrigeration system driven by waste heat can significantly reduce the energy consumption of industrial buildings in terms of indoor temperature regulation, and improve the energy utilization ratio of industrial buildings.

Multi-mode and exergoeconomic analysis of a novel combined cooling, heating, and power system applied in the geothermal field

The exploitation and utilization of geothermal resources contribute to alleviating energy crisis and reducing environmental pollution caused by the use of fossil fuels. The energy systems driven by low-grade geothermal heat sources also have the potential for energy-saving and emission reduction. Among all kinds of energy systems, multi-mode systems with characteristics of various operation modes and flexible energy output have been widely concerned. In this work, a multi-mode CCHP system with a novel structure is proposed and driven by a closed type of geothermal heat source. The proposed parallel system is composed of a vapor compression heat pump cycle, an organic Rankine cycle, and a vapor compression refrigeration cycle. The exergy efficiency and total product unit cost are selected as objective functions in multi-objective optimization processes to characterize system thermodynamic and exergoeconomic performances, respectively. The proposed system can operate in seven different modes to realize the conversion of power, heating, and cooling capacity output. The effects of main parameters, including evaporation pressure, condensing temperature, split ratio, etc, on system performances were studied. Results found that the coupling evaporator had the highest exergy destruction rate while the component turbine showed the largest capital cost. From the viewpoint of exergoeconomic performance, the turbine and coupling condenser were the most two important components. After that, the multi-objective optimization results revealed the limits of comprehensive system performance under such closed heat source conditions. Finally, the adjustable analysis found the performance range of the proposed system regulating the seven different operation modes. The exergy efficiency and total product unit cost fluctuated in the ranges of 18.68–52.64 % and 9.56–14.93 $/GJ, respectively.

Heat Transfer Enhancement of Biomass Based Stirling Engine

Stirling engine as an external combustion engine with high efficiencies and able to use any types of heat source is the best candidate to recover waste heat of the exhausted gas by converting it into power. Thus, in this study Stirling engine was introduced to evaluate the possibility of recovering waste heat from biomass to produce power. For this reason, Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulation test was performed to design an initial computational model of Stirling engine for low temperature heat waste recovery. The CFD model was validated with the experiment model and shows 6.11% of average deviation. This result proves that the computational model can be further used to evaluate the performance of Stirling engine as waste heat recovery of biomass-based industrial boilers for low-grade temperature heat source.

The Influence of Condenser Temperature on the Energy and Exergy Efficiencies of the ORC

From low-grade heat sources, the organic Rankine cycle may be exploited to create power. The thermal efficiency of the organic Rankine cycle is affected by the value of the lowest cycle temperature, which is the condensation temperature. This study looks at the effect of condensation temperature on the efficiency of energy systems that use organic Rankine cycles. At a condensing temperature of 10–20 °C, the ORC thermal efficiency is calculated. R134a working fluid was used in the study. The expander's power output was boosted to 0.09765 kW by decreasing the condensing temperature. Additionally, the thermal efficiency has been enhanced by 3.826 %. At a minimum temperature of 10 °C, the expander speed at 595 rpm. Exergy efficiency has an 18.26 %. is shown that lowering the condensing temperature increased the ORC system's thermal efficiency and energy output.

Comprehensive Analysis for State-of-the-Art Adsorption Refrigeration Technologies

With the development of science and technology, society needs more and more energy currently, and the energy utilization efficiency has become a topic that cannot be neglected. In many cases, it is still a common phenomenon in society that a large amount of energy is wasted, which may cause more fossil energy to be burned and the greenhouse effect to be strengthened. In addition to directly improving the utilization rate of energy, we can also reduce energy waste through the recovery and reuse of waste energy. Thermal energy sorption refrigeration technology, divided into adsorption refrigeration technology using solid adsorbent and absorption refrigeration technology using liquid absorbent, could utilize waste energy or low-grade heat sources for refrigeration. Through the introduction of adsorption refrigeration technology, the research and analysis of the application of solid adsorption refrigeration technology in industry, vehicles, ships and buildings, this paper introduces the basic principle and current situation of this technology, summarizes the advantages, disadvantages and development direction of adsorption refrigeration technology, and provides reference for those who do not comprehend this technology or have doubts about the scope of its use.

Comparative analysis of system performance of thermally integrated pumped thermal energy storage systems based on organic flash cycle and organic Rankine cycle

Pumped thermal energy storage (PTES) technology has become an increasingly attractive research field because of its low cost, long lifetime, and lack of geographical restrictions. However, thermally integrated PTES (TIPTES) systems that integrate low-grade heat sources are more promising because they can significantly improve system performance. In this study, TIPTES systems driven by geothermal water employ the organic flash cycle (OFC-TIPTES) and organic Rankine cycle (ORC-TIPTES) as discharge cycles. Five different working fluids, including R123, Butane, Cyclohexane, R1233zd(E), and Butene, are selected as candidates. Parametric study is performed to analyze the effects of main parameters on system thermodynamic and thermo-economic performance. Then, comparative study is conducted based on the multi-objective optimization resutls to search out the optimal cycle structure and working fluid. Results indicate that when the thermal storage temperature increases, the variation trends of the exergy efficiency and levelized cost of storage (LCOS) are identical, but the variation trends of the power-to-power efficiency are different for two systems. And a higher evaporation temperature increases the thermodynamic efficiency of both systems. For the OFC-TIPTES system, a maximal thermodynamic efficiency exists at an optimal flash temperature. The multi-objective optimization results indicate that the ORC-TIPTES has higher power-to-power efficiency, exergy efficiency, and lower LCOS than the OFC-TIPTES. Butane and Cyclohexane yield the final solutions for power-to-power efficiency and LCOS for the OFC-TIPTES (33.55 % and 0.83 $·kWh−1) and the ORC-TIPTES (68.42 % and 0.34 $·kWh−1), respectively. The exergy destructions of the throttle valve before the flash tank and condenser of the heat-pump cycle are maximal, that is, 232 kW and 692 kW for the OFC-TIPTES and ORC-TIPTES systems, respectively. The costs of the condenser of the OFC/ORC subsystem, turbine, and compressor are higher for all components of both systems. A comparative analysis shows that the ORC-TIPTES system exhibits better performance than the OFC-TIPTES system in terms of thermodynamics and economics.

Experimental Investigations of Flow Boiling Heat Transfer under Near-Critical Pressure for Selected Working Fluids

This paper deals with experimental investigations of flow boiling in tubular ducts of selected refrigerants—R134a, R507A, and R600a—under near-critical pressures. Near-critical boiling is characterised by low specific enthalpy of evaporation. The positive effect of this feature is the fact that only a small amount of heat consumed by Organic Rankine Cycles is at a constant temperature. This allows a lower terminal temperature of the heating fluid and more effective utilisation of heat sources, especially of low-grade heat sources. The experimental investigations covered a heat flux density of 0.4 to 10 kW/m2 and a mass velocity of 60 to 200 kg/(m2·s). The results of the experimental data were compared to the modified heat transfer correlation of Gungor and Winterton, which provices the best fit for the obtained experimental data. The maximum heat transfer coefficient occurred at the two-phase quality—approximately 0.4 for all the tested fluids under high pressure conditions—which may be thought of as a characteristic feature of the boiling process under near-critical conditions. A modified Gungor–Winterton correlation improves prediction accuracy, especially under the lowest (up to 3 kW/m2) and highest (over 7 kW/m2) heat flux densities for all the tested fluids.

Self-Powered Respiratory Monitoring Strategy Based on Adaptive Dual-Network Thermogalvanic Hydrogels.

As a low-grade sustainable heat source, the breath waste heat exhaled by human bodies is always ignored, although producing a greater temperature than ambient. Converting this heat into electric energy for use as power sources or detecting signals is extremely important in cutting-edge wearable medicine. This heat-to-electricity conversion is possible with thermogalvanic hydrogels. However, challenges remain in their antifreezing and antidrying properties, significantly restricting the durability of thermogalvanic gels in practical applications. Herein, a dual-network poly(vinyl alcohol)/gelatin (PVA/GEL) gel thermogalvanic device with Fe(CN)63-/4- as a redox pair is developed, with an outstanding low-temperature durability and antidrying capacity. These features result from the use of a binary H2O/GL (glycerin) solvent to limit hydrogen bonding between water molecules. The prepared thermogalvanic gel patch is capable of easily converting physiological data into understandable electrical impulses using the temperature difference between the ambient environment and the heat produced by human breathing, realizing a simple self-powered respiratory monitoring strategy for the first time. Even below zero temperature, the gel patch-based mask can operate normally, implying it fits into low-temperature environments. This study sheds fresh light on the development of active wearable medical electronics that are powered by demic low-level heat.

Simulation of Thermosyphon Rankine Engine

The increasing global energy demand has led to other alternative ways of harvesting energy from renewable resources. This energy cause less environmental pollution and deterioration of humans' health. Thermosyphon Rankine engine (TSR) is a concept used for direct electrical power generation from low-grade heat sources. In this project, an extended investigation on previous experimental done was conducted through a simulation approach using Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) analysis to simulate a two-phase flow, phase change occurred during evaporation and condensation processes inside the thermosyphon under different power inputs of 245 W, 552 W, and 984 W. Also the water was used as a working fluid. The volume of fluid (VOF) technique was used to model the phase change using ANSYS FLUENT software. The simulation investigated temperature profile, water volume fraction, and velocity. Then, CFD predicted temperature profile was compared with the previous experimental data, and percentage error was calculated. Compared to the experimental one, CFD predicted temperature profile was higher than the experimental one due to mechanical losses during experimentation. Meanwhile, the model managed to simulate vapor bubbles and nucleate boiling during phase change. It showed that the VOF model with the in-built evaporation-condensation model developed by Lee only simulated nucleate boiling at the interphase between water and vapor phase during evaporation and condensation processes.