Source Of Household Income Research Articles

A DESCRIPTION OF SMALL-SCALE FARMERS’ INDIGENOUS HOUSEHOLD LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES IN DIKGALE COMMUNITY IN LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA

The current research examines the degree to which indigenous crop and livestock production are still practiced and relied upon as sources of household income in a rural community in South Africa's Limpopo Province. The study is motivated by observations that indigenous knowledge contributes to rural economies by ensuring household food security and generating income. A total of 61 small-scale farmers, purposely sampled were interviewed through semi-structured interviews. The study findings show that indigenous subsistence crops and livestock production continue to be the primary sources of food and income in the studied community. In subsistence crop production, maize and groundnuts are the most often produced crops in the home-gardens. The fresh fruits are consumed with surplus maize exchanged for maize meal at the local milling company. Like maize, groundnuts are consumed fresh while surplus is sold in the local market. Additionally, the farmers raise cattle as a source of revenue, with the stock being sold for cash to supplement family income. Fewer farmers keep livestock, particularly cattle as a result of scarcity of stock feed and water to raise and maintain the stock. This mode of subsistence has withstood the influence of Western knowledge systems and the adverse effects of climate change.

Distribution of Household Assets and the Resultant Pattern of Income among Citrus Fruits Growers in Himachal Pradesh

This paper examines the distribution of household assets and the resultant pattern of income among the citrus fruits growers in Himachal Pradesh. The rural economy of India is agro-pastoral in nature; land is the major productive asset in the rural areas. In the rural areas agricultural, horticultural, animal husbandry and cottage industries are the major sources of household income. In Himachal Pradesh, land is the main productive asset and inequality in the distribution of land is followed by inequality in the distribution of income and assets which further leads to unequal access to the decision making process. Mass poverty and chronic underutilization of enormous human potential are commonly considered as our most important concerns. Poverty, often known as inequality, is a socioeconomic scenario in which a society’s resources are diverted to support the needs of a small group of individuals, while the majority does not have enough to eat.

UPAYA PENINGKATAN PENDAPATAN RUMAH TANGGA MELALUI PENGEMBANGAN USAHA PADA KELOMPOK PETERNAK IKAN DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN SISTEM BIOFLOK DI DESA TAWANGBANTENG KEC. SUKARATU KAB. TASIKMALAYA

Household income is all income or receipts in the form of money or goods from all household members obtained, either in the form of wages/salaries, income from household businesses, other income, and income from gifts from other parties. In other words, household income is remuneration for labor production factors, remuneration for capital, as well as income derived from gifts from other parties. One of the sources of household income is livestock sector income. One way to increase household income is to develop a fish farmer group business using a biofloc system. In the village of Tawangbanteng, Sukaratu District, Tasikmalaya Regency, there is a group of fish farmers who need morel and material assistance, especially during this pandemic. The action taken is to provide knowledge about raising fish with a biofloc system as well as assistance that can provide solutions for farmers, namely the implementation of PbM-KP (Service for the Food Security Society). This service aims to increase the knowledge and understanding of fish farmer groups using the biofloc system. In addition, farmers are also given information about the system of selling or distributing livestock products, especially through online media. The method implemented in this PbM-KP activity is gradual guidance and the provision of material assistance that is considered necessary in developing the mushroom farmer group business.

Labour Migration and Economic Impact in Nepal and Sri Lanka

Nepal and Sri Lanka are recognized as labour-exporting countries. The flow of labor migration in foreign labor markets has been increasing each year. Trends of foreign labor migration started to increase in both countries after 1990. Both countries are categorized under income group countries. Foreign employment has become one of the nation's main household income and foreign exchange earnings sources. After the 1990s, Remittance contributed to foreign exchange earnings and had a favourable impact on the balance of payments, solving unemployment problems, reducing poverty, and boosting economic growth. This study aims to examine the impact of foreign employment on Remittance and the economic growth of these economies. The impact of labor migration on macroeconomic variables (balance of payments, economic growth) has been measured using statistical tools such as correction and regression models from 1995-2019. The study finds that the flow of Remittance has increased and positively impacted macroeconomic variables in the study periods. The study shows that foreign employment has become the main destination for the youths of both countries. The results showed a positive relationship between foreign employment and Remittance and a positive impact on economic growth.

Household Earnings and Income Volatility in the UK, 2009–2017

We study the volatility of sources of individual and household level income in the UK in the years 2009-2017, following the Great Recession and government austerity. We find that the volatility of (pre-tax) earnings and disposable income has fallen for the working-age in this period, largely due to fewer negative and large earnings shocks. For older individuals, we also find a fall in the volatility of private income, mainly due to fewer positive and large income shocks. Taxes and transfers help stabilise incomes, with social security cash benefits and income-dependent refundable tax credits reducing household private income volatility by around a quarter for the working age, and 40 percent for those aged 60 or over. However, over the sample period, taxes and benefits became less well correlated with earnings, reducing their ability to counteract swings in labour income. The findings illustrate the consequences of fiscal retrenchment and the cut-backs to welfare benefits on the stability of incomes.

Living with Landslides: Perceptions of Risk and Resilience in Far West Nepal

This study presents an analysis of risk and resilience perceptions in two villages of Far West Nepal, Sunkuda and Bajedi, located in the upper Karnali River Basin. The area has been affected by deep-seated and shallow landslides, which have had a devastating impact on many rural lives and livelihoods. While both villages are exposed to landslides, Bajedi is situated in a higher risk zone. Using structured surveys, semi-structured interviews and insights from stakeholder workshops, the risk and resilience perceptions of household residents of the two villages are elicited. The objectives of the study are 1) to understand how residents perceive their risk and resilience to landslides, and 2) to provide evidence and insights on the factors that influence risk perception. Results show that landslides are perceived as an existential risk in both villages, although risks are perceived as more serious in Bajedi. The higher risk perception in Bajedi is shown to be mainly driven by households’ ability to cope, including their energy sources, whether they know whom to call in case of a landslides, as well as household savings and income sources. In Sunkuda, risk perception is shown to be influenced by households’ access to and status of community forests, expenditure on medication, the seasonality and types of water sources, and ethnicity. In both villages, additional drivers of risk perception include households’ social networks, their perceived triggers of landslides, their outstanding loans, and who collects the water. The results demonstrate the interconnectedness of risk perception and indicators of resilience. By elucidating the risk perception of Sunkuda and Bajedi, this study has important implications for local risk management strategies and policies.

The inflow of Foreign Remittances in Rural Punjab: The Determinants

In this paper, an attempt was made to analyze two issues relating to the inflow of remittances in the migrant households of rural Punjab. Firstly, the distribution pattern of remittances receiving migrant households as the volume of per household remittances. Secondly, causes of receiving different volumes of remittances by households. The results showed that in short to medium periods, remittances remained a stable and significant source of migrant's household income. In the long term, as more migrants get legal status in the destination country, or their families join them, build their own houses, or start their businesses, they may revise their portfolio choice. The study also found that the high per capita domestic income of the migrant households back at home and the increased stay of the migrants in the destination countries negatively impact the inflow of households remittances. However, there was a positive relationship between the inflow of per household remittances and the number of family migrants abroad. Similarly, illegal migrants send more remittances than legal migrants. The migrants in developed countries sent more remittances than migrants of developing countries. The study also found that altruism predominates as more remittances were received from children and spouses than other relatives.

Outbreak and Insecticide Susceptibility of Pod Feeding-larvae on Cocoa in Ghana

Cocoa is an important foreign exchange earner and a major source of income for several households in Ghana. In 2018, a larval outbreak on cocoa pods was reported in Ghana. Although the origin is unknown, it was perceived to be a secondary pest outbreak. In this study, a survey was conducted in the outbreak areas to identify and determine the occurrence of the pest and its susceptibility to a commonly used insecticide. Field and laboratory studies were conducted to identify the pest, determine the level of infestation, insecticide susceptibility, and field management. The outbreak was mainly caused by larvae of Anomis leona (~96% infestation of cocoa trees in some communities) with extensive feeding damage (chewing channels/tunnels) on the pericarp of pods. Field populations of A. leona larvae from districts in the Central region subjected to bifenthrin were susceptible at the recommended field rate (0.0245%) for mirids after 48 h of exposure under laboratory conditions. The insecticide induced a median lethal concentration (LC50) of ≤0.0061% and ≤0.0018% on A. leona larvae from Jukwa and Twifo Praso in the Central region at 24 and 48 h of exposure, respectively. Field application of bifenthrin was able to suppress infestation. The findings show that Anomis larvae were responsible for the outbreak, inducing extensive damage on pods. Bifenthrin was toxic to the larvae and could be used to manage them on the field. The outbreak indicates the need to develop an integrated management and monitoring strategy for cocoa pests to minimize future outbreaks.

Mass Arrivals of Poles in the 1980s as a Symptom of Political and Economic Changes in the Eastern Bloc

The article concerns the subject of mass Ukrainian-Polish contacts in the last decade of the USSR. Documents produced by the Polish consular services and the political police allow for the study of Poles’ travel across the eastern border. They were visiting Ukraine e.g. as employees of cultural and commercial institutions, construction companies, participants of official delegations, students of Soviet universities, trainees, participants of trips and — the most frequent — individual tourists. The most important were informal contacts, almost all visitors tried to trade illegally. The intensification of these trips (in 1988 Ukraine was visited by 700,000 Poles), their circumstances and character were the effect of the progressive disintegration of the communist system, which had been taking place in Poland since 1980 and in Ukraine since 1985. The deepening economic crisis increased interest in the transportation of goods across the border and their illegal sale as a source of household supplies or income. Weakening state structures were unable, or unwilling, to effectively counteract this practice. The progressive liberalization of travel regulations increased the number of visitors, who were interested not only in business but also in Ukraine’s past and culture, especially in monuments of Lviv. Poles sometimes demonstrated their critical attitude to the Communist regime, manifested freedom or religious attitudes and often broke harsh Soviet rules. The militia and secret service found them to be troublesome guests. However, non-political people-to-people contacts, virtually nonexistent after WWII, were established and renewed then. These relations developed into close neighborly cooperation after the fall of the USSR.

Traditional fermented foods and beverages: Indigenous practices of food processing in Benin Republic

This article provides the socio-cultural, health benefits and descriptive overview of common traditional fermented food products in Benin Republic. A wide range of indigenous fermented foods locally named Tchoukoutou, Tchakpalo, Gowé, Agbelima, Mawè, Ogi, Lafoun, Afitin, Iru, Sonru, Lanhouin, Gari and Dèguè is produced in Benin Republic. These foods are mainly processed from the fermentation of cereals (Tchoukoutou, Tchakpalo, Mawè, Ogi), roots (Lafoun, Gari), non-timber forest products (Afitin, Iru, Sonru), milk (Dèguè) and fish (Lanhouin). Their consumption and acceptability depend on socio-cultural, geographical, and economic factors. These traditional fermented food products contain useful microorganisms and metabolites that improve digestion, boost immunity and promote a healthy weight. Besides their health and nutritional benefits, they are also an important source of income for local households, especially women, resulting in an improved living standard for the population. Some traditional fermented food products like gowé provide an average profit of around $ 1.66 to $ 663.90 per month. Future prospects should be focused on the industrial production of these products. Emphasis needs to be placed on microbial activity, long-term conservation and packaging.

Adapting Sanitation Needs to a Latrine Design (and Its Upgradable Models): A Mixed Method Study under Lower Middle-Income Rural Settings

Rural households have latrine preferences and unique sanitation needs. An assessment of how rural households adapt their sanitation needs to a nationally encouraged latrine design was done. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 790 households in a rural district of Zimbabwe from November 2020 to May 2021. Data were analysed using logistic regression. Qualitative data were collected using focus groups and analysed using thematic analysis. Analyses were done in STATA 16 and considered significant at p < 0.05. There was low adoption of the Blair ventilated improved pit latrine and its upgradable models. Significant predictor variables of BVIP latrine adoption were mainly contextual and psychosocial at the individual and household levels. They included source and level of household income, residence period, nature of homestead, number of cattle owned, knowledge of sanitation options and perceived high latrine cost. The latrine design was considered not a pro-poor option as it was unaffordable by many rural households resulting in its non-completion, poor-quality designs, alternative options, sharing and open defaecation. Poverty appears the main barrier for latrine ownership. However, a window of opportunity to improve access to sanitation in rural Zimbabwe exists by considering alternative sanitation options and financial investment mechanisms.

Household Vulnerability to Climate Change and Identification of Target Beneficiaries to Implement Household-Specific Adaptation Strategies: A Quantitative Assessment

This study investigated the climate change vulnerability of 6,214 households in the drought-prone districts of Telangana state in India. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were used to group farm households based on their level of vulnerability to climate change and to suggest a portfolio of adaptation strategies. The PCA revealed the presence of five components from 14 key variables: (1) access to irrigation; (2) credit access, landholding, and income from agriculture; (3) household size and income sources; (4) access to information and climate-smart adaptation practices; and (5) social capital. The first five components (eigenvalue ≥ 1) collectively accounted for 60.42 percent of the total variance. Three clusters emerged after the component scores were analyzed using K-means clustering: extremely vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, and resilient households. The results of the cluster analysis revealed that 79 percent of the households were extremely vulnerable, 11.20 percent were moderately vulnerable, and 9.65 percent were resilient. Moreover, 96 percent of marginal farmers and 94 percent of smallholder farmers were extremely vulnerable, while 19 percent of large farmers and 16 percent of medium farmers were moderately vulnerable. Interestingly, nearly 26 percent in the extremely vulnerable category and 19 percent in the moderately vulnerable category were large farmers, which contradicts previous assumptions. The findings of this study can guide development practitioners, policymakers, and donors in designing evidence-based programs focusing on households vulnerable to climate change.

Climate Change Vulnerability of Marginal and Small Farmers in Nuapada District, Odisha

This study attempts to measure the level of livelihood vulnerability of farmers to climate change in Nuapada. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used based on primary and secondary data. The study found that marginal and small farmers in the study area have different differential livelihood vulnerability to climate change. The study has used composite approach in which seven dimensions including 34 indicators were studied. Composite of factors such as low level of education, lack of access to credit, lack of access to critical irrigation were associated with the relatively higher Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) values. The multiple linear regression analysis revealed that seven socio-economic variables account for 44% of variation in livelihood vulnerability index; three variables among them viz. number of household income sources, landholding size and highest level of education in household were found to have significant impact on LVI. The findings of the study conclude that there is differential vulnerability to climate change in the same context which was mostly determined by various socioeconomic factors. Thus climate change related studies and policies (which mostly limit district as the measuring unit) must expand their scope to understand and act on differential vulnerabilities in the same district.

The role of social identity in improving access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and health services: Evidence from Nepal

SummaryMotivationCOVID‐19 has revived focus on improving equitable access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and health services in developing countries. Most public programming tends to rely on economic indicators to identify and target vulnerable groups. Can expanded targeting criteria that include social status help to improve not only targeting, but also equity in access to WASH and health services?PurposeThis article assesses the role of social identity in mediating access to WASH and health services, controlling for economic disadvantages such as household wealth, income sources, and assets.Methods and approachWe use regression analysis applied to the 2016 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) to estimate the relationships between social identity and access to WASH and health services, controlling for wealth (using wealth index quantiles) and remittances (using indicator variables for domestic and international remittances).FindingsWe find that differences in access are mediated in large part by caste, and religious and ethnic identity, especially in rural areas, suggesting that the supply of such services is lower for historically disadvantaged communities. In addition, communities with least access are not necessarily the most economically disadvantaged, indicating that relying solely on traditional economic indicators to target programmes and interventions may not be sufficient to improve equity in access to public health services.Policy implicationsThe results make a case for broadening indicators beyond the economic criteria for improving targeting of public funds for more inclusive development.

The effects of rural development on main sources of farm households

In line with the development of the rural villages, rural employment changes. Consequently, the job opportunities of some farmers will also change. This study aims to estimate the effect of rural development and some other factors on the primary source of household income of farmers in several agroecosystems. The data analyzed were the 2013 Agricultural Census, Village Potential and “PATANAS” data. The results showed that farmers’ opportunity of leaving agriculture as the main source of household income increased if cultivated land was smaller and the inequality of landholding in the village increased. In the set of variables that determine rural development, improvements in the dimensions of basic services and basic infrastructure of non-accessibility/transportation positively affect the opportunities of farmers’ households to make non-agricultural work as their source of income. Improvements in the accessibility/transportation dimension, on the other hand, strengthen the ability of farm households to rely on agriculture as a source of household income. Based on the research results, increasing the agricultural sector as a significant contributor to farmer household income can be achieved by increasing accessibility/transportation facilities and improving the distribution of cultivated land.

Dynamic of migration and labor productivity in the rural area of PATANAS villages

The agricultural sector still becomes a source of household income in rural areas, although its role tends to decrease. In the period 2011‒2015, the number of agricultural workers decreased about 1% per year and is inversely proportional to the increasing Indonesian labor, which reached an average of 1.2% per year. Several leading causes of labor decreases are migration and productivity issues in the agricultural sector. This paper aims to determine migration and labor productivity dynamics in three-time points in villages on Panel Petani Nasional Program (PATANAS) located at three agroecosystems: plantation, secondary crop, and vegetable. Amount of respondents in each agroecosystem were 312, 232, and 121 farmers. Data analysis was presented descriptively. The results of the study indicated that labor productivity varies between agroecosystems. The highest increase in productivity occurred in vegetable, then secondary crop, and plantation. Labor productivity in the agricultural sector is inversely proportional to the migration on an agroecosystem. There is not excessive migration in the vegetable agroecosystems since labor productivity is highest than the others. There is a phenomenon of increasing working family members followed by an increase in the number of migrations. This phenomenon negatively impacts the agricultural sector because there is no increase in the number of workers in the agricultural sector. There is a trend for young people in PATANAS villages to undertake permanent migration. Increasing labor productivity in rural areas predicted could reduce labor migration. Efforts that can be created are gradually encouraging off-farm and non-farm activities, including small-scale agro-industries.

Contribution of pig farming to household in Tenga Subdistrict, South Minahasa District

The people of Tenga Subdistrict, South Minahasa District have raised pigs as well as used them as a source of household income. Pig farming has been running for about 15 years, although sometimes it receives losses. This study aims to determine how much the contribution of pig farming to household income and the factors that affect the income of pig farming in Tenga Subdistrict, South Minahasa District. This research was conducted during March 2021, and the sample locations in Tenga Subdistrict, South Minahasa District in Tenga Village, Pakuweru Village, and Pakuure Village were determined using the purposive sampling method, with the consideration that these areas are areas that have a large population of pigs. The sample was determined by the total quota sampling method, namely all pig breeders in the three sample villages as many as 30 farmers. The analysis model used to estimate the factors that affect income is the multiple linear regression equation models. Pig farming was able to provide the income of IDR 17,431,281/year with an average of 26 pigs/farmer. Pig farming contributed 40% to household income. Pig farming has the largest contribution to the household income of pig breeders. The factors that influence the income of pig farming are the age of the farmer, the number of ownership of pigs, and the type of business combination. Farmers needs to increase the number of sows, to increase household income. The government’s policy is a program of providing assistance in the form of pigs, as broodstock for farmers.

The impact of migration processes on the labor market in the Republic of Moldova

Economic transformations in recent years have produced changes in the social structure, as well as profound demographic changes, which have contributed to demographic aging and declining working age populations. Changes in the structure of the population, accompanied by migration have led to a reduction in the number of people employed, as well as to changes in the structure of employment. The study reveals that the socio-economic situation in the country, the imperfect evolution of the labor market, the diffifculty of securing a decent paying job, have put a signififi cant part of the population on the path of labor migration, which for many has become a necessity rather than a choice. At the same time, the remittances transferred in favor of individuals have become the only source of income for many households. All the above issues are current and, therefore, represent the topic of this research. The research was performed using comparative analysis methods, aided by graphs. Based on the results of this research, certain conclusions and recommendations were developed in order to promote a system of measures aimed at reducing labor migration, by applying sustainable socioeconomic development programs, which would contribute to the creation of new jobs.

Distributional Change: Assessing the Contribution of Household Income Sources*

AbstractWe develop a decomposition of changes in household income distributions by factor components to quantify the contribution of changes over time in the association between sources of income and changes in their (marginal) distributions. The two components are broken down to isolate the contribution of specific income sources. An application to the change in the distribution of household incomes in Luxembourg between 2004 and 2013 reveals contrasted results: increased association between spouse earnings, public transfers and taxes depressed the income share of poor households while changes in marginal distributions increased incomes in the upper half of the distribution.

Women Farmers as Entrepreneur in the Sebatik-Nunukan Border, North Kalimantan Province

Policies in the economic and development sector still place men as the main actors, women only as “task assistants” in economic activities. The women of Liang Bunyu village in West Sebatik District make Seaweed farming a source of household income and become a leading commodity in village economic development. The women in the village bind seaweed farming for the nursery. A job that men are reluctant to do, but the most important part of the production process. This paper discussed how Sebatik women play a crucial role in making seaweed cultivation a household business. It will be an essential input for the local government policy of developing a household business driven by housewives. The research method used was a qualitative description with an ethnographic approach to make participant observations and in-depth interviews are accurate in collecting data and field findings. The research found that Sebatik women had the prospect to be an entrepreneur. It's just that Sebatik's economic development does not necessarily increase women's empowerment. Not many Sebatik women farmers think about selling seaweed as a processed product, which is more economically valuable and profitable. Education and community culture were the main causes, even though kinship and ethnic networks could function as economic capital. Sebatik woman farmers need government support in both policy regulation and practical assistance, especially in entrepreneurial training.