Source Of Eicosapentaenoic Acid Research Articles

EPA and DHA—Protein, not fat is “Where It's at”?

Guidelines and recommendations for the dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are topics of debate. Recently, EPA and DHA intakes have been demonstrated to be associated with dietary protein intakes and not dietary fat intakes that are distinct from α-linolenic acid. We presently confirm these observations in a secondary analysis of baseline dietary intake data for the validation of a food frequency questionnaire (n=99). DHA intakes measured by both 3 d dietary record and food frequency questionnaire and EPA intakes measured by food frequency questionnaire were positively correlated with protein intakes. EPA and DHA were not associated with fat intakes in either assessment, while ?-linolenic acid was positively correlated with fat intakes. Future recommendations regarding the intake of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and EPA and DHA specifically, should consider these associations that provide insight on dietary sources of EPA and DHA in the food supply.

N-3 fatty acid-enriched parenteral nutrition regimens in elective surgical and ICU patients: a meta-analysis

IntroductionPrevious studies and a meta-analysis in surgical patients indicate that supplementing parenteral nutrition regimens with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), in particular eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is associated with improved laboratory and clinical outcomes in the setting of hyper-inflammatory conditions. Refined or synthetic fish oils are commonly used as a source of EPA and DHA. The objective of the present meta-analysis was to evaluate n-3 PUFA-enriched parenteral nutrition regimens in elective surgical and intensive care unit (ICU) patients.MethodsMedline was searched for randomized controlled trials comparing n-3 PUFA-enriched lipid emulsions with standard non-enriched lipid emulsions (i.e. soybean oil, MCT/LCT or olive/soybean oil emulsions) in surgical and ICU patients receiving parenteral nutrition. Extracted data were pooled by means of both random and fixed effects models, and subgroup analyses were carried forward to compare findings in ICU versus non-ICU patients.ResultsA total of 23 studies (n = 1502 patients: n = 762 admitted to the ICU) were included. No statistically significant difference in mortality rate was found between patients receiving n-3 PUFA-enriched lipid emulsions and those receiving standard lipid emulsions (RR= 0.89; 0.59, 1.33), possibly reflecting a relatively low underlying mortality risk. However, n-3 PUFA-enriched emulsions are associated with a statistically and clinically significant reduction in the infection rate (RR =0.61; 0.45, 0.84) and the lengths of stay, both in the ICU (-1.92; -3.27, -0.58) and in hospital overall (-3.29; -5.13, -1.45). Other beneficial effects included reduced markers of inflammation, improved lung gas exchange, liver function, antioxidant status and fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids, and a trend towards less impairment of kidney function.ConclusionsThese results confirm and extend previous findings, indicating that n-3 PUFAs-enriched parenteral nutrition regimens are safe and effective in reducing the infection rate and hospital/ICU stay in surgical and ICU patients.

A Cost Analysis of EPA and DHA in Fish, Supplements, and Foods

Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFAs) are important components in healthy diets. Adequate intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) maintains proper neurodevelopment and reduces the risk of heart disease. Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are found primarily in fish, seafood, eggs, supplements, and fortified foods. The cost of food is a major influence on food choices. This study sought to determine the cost of 500 mg of EPA + DHA (the recommended intake) in seafood, food and supplements in order to identify the most economical sources. Stores from five retail grocery chains in Honolulu, Hawaii were visited in June and July 2010 to collect data on the price of foods and supplements containing significant amounts of EPA or DHA. The analysis used information from a nutrient database comprising fourteen food composition databases detailing the omega-3 content of a wide variety of fish and seafood products. While fish oil supplements provided 500 mg of EPA + DHA at the lowest cost, relatively low-cost sources of EPA and DHA were available in fish with a variety of consumption characteristics, such as salmon and pelagic marine fishes. The most expensive sources of 500 mg of EPA +DHA were demersal marine fishes, milk and soy milk, and seaweeds. Strategies to increase intake of EPA and DHA include educating consumers on health benefits and sources, encouraging the consumption of seafood, improving the fatty acid profile of farmed seafood, and increasing the number of foods with EPA and DHA fortification.

CONTRIBUTION OF MICROENCAPSULATED N-3 PUFA POWDER TOWARD SENSORY AND OXIDATIVE STABILITY OF BREAD

ABSTRACT Whole wheat breads were prepared by substituting shortening with different levels of microencapsulated n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) powder. The oxidative stability of n-3 PUFA powder in bread was monitored over 7-day storage using sensory evaluation, % recovery of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by gas chromatography, lipid oxidation by peroxide value and anisidine value (AV) determinations. Baking qualities and texture of bread were investigated as well. High recovery of EPA and DHA (80–89%), and low lipids oxidation in bread after baking and storage showed that microencapsulated n-3 PUFA powder is stable in bread. The substitution of shortening with microencapsulated n-3 PUFA powder did not affect the specific volume and quality of the bread. Bread containing 1.0% microencapsulated n-3 PUFA powder gave an acceptable palatability even after 3-day storage. Microencapsulated n-3 PUFA powder can be recommended as a suitable substitute for shortening. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS At present, health benefits of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are well known. However, EPA and DHA cannot be synthesized in the human body and the main dietary source of EPA and DHA is fish. This could be a problem for those who do not eat enough fish. Dietary supplementation has therefore appeared to be the only effective way to meet recommendations regarding the intake of EPA and DHA. Recently, efforts have been directed toward the inclusion of marine lipids in popular foods to increase the consumption of n-3 PUFA. However, the application of fish oil in food enrichment is limited by its unpleasant fishy flavor and high capacity toward the oxidation of n-3 PUFA. Hence, to formulate new products successfully, the oxidative and sensory stabilities of n-3 PUFA-enriched products need to be taken into consideration.

Low-dose eicosapentaenoic acid and/or docosahexaenoic acid and triglyceride lowering

We read with interest “Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid dose-dependently reduce fasting serum triglycerides” by Musa-Veloso et al. in the March 2010 issue of Nutrition Reviews .1 A great deal of research has addressed the effects of the long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and/or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on serum lipids and lipoproteins at intakes of 2 g/day or more. In contrast, fewer studies have addressed this issue at intakes that are practical for consumption via diet, particularly if the diet contains one or more sources of EPA- and/or DHA-fortified foods.2 In light of evidence that intakes <1.0 g/day may have a number of important biological effects,3 it is of interest to evaluate whether such intakes would also influence the serum lipid profile. Maintenance of modestly lower serum levels of atherogenic lipoprotein lipids may produce substantial benefits if maintained over extended periods.4 The authors are to be commended for providing an excellent review of the recent …

Correlation of Omega-3 Fatty Acids Intakes with Acculturation and Socioeconomic Status in Midwestern Latinas

Low socioeconomic status (SES) and acculturation of Latino immigrants in the U.S. are linked to a decrease in diet quality. Interviews were conducted with 162 first generation Latinas to examine the association of SES and acculturation with intake of omega-3 (n - 3) fatty acids. Each participant provided dietary intake by use of a validated n - 3 food frequency questionnaire administered twice, 4 weeks apart, three 24-h recalls, sociodemographic information and completed the 5-item Short Acculturation Scale. Mean intakes of Total n - 3, α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (g/d) were 1.2 ± 0.7, 1.1 ± 0.6, and 0.1 ± 0.1, respectively. After adjusting for energy intake, education was significantly correlated with EPA + DHA intakes, and acculturation was significantly correlated with Total n - 3, ALA and EPA + DHA intakes. Foods sources of EPA + DHA eaten by at least 50% of participants were chicken, shrimp, tuna and eggs. Given the beneficial cardiovascular effects of n - 3 fatty acids, it is important to understand sociocultural factors affecting adequate intake towards an improvement in diet quality in minorities.

Fatty acid profiles of muscle from large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea R.) of different age

We investigated the fatty acid profiles of muscle from large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea R.) of different age. One- and two-year-old fish were cultured in floating net cages and sampled randomly for analysis. Moisture, protein, lipid and ash contents were determined by methods of Association of Analytical Chemist (AOAC) International. Fatty acid profile was determined by gas chromatography. Crude protein, fat, moisture and ash contents showed no significant differences between the two age groups. The contents of total polyunsaturated fatty acids and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were significantly higher and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) content was significantly lower in the two-year-old large yellow croaker than in the one-year-old (P<0.05). No significant differences were observed in the contents of total saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids, or the ratio of n-3/n-6 fatty acids among the large yellow croakers of the two age groups. We conclude that large yellow croakers are good food sources of EPA and DHA.

Gammaproteobacteria as a Possible Source of Eicosapentaenoic Acid in Anoxic Intertidal Sediments

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; n-20:5omega3) was found to be a constituent of phospholipids in three mesophilic strains of Gammaproteobacteria, which were isolated from anoxic most probable number series prepared with sediments from an intertidal flat of the German North Sea coast. Their partial 16S rRNA gene sequences identified the isolates as close relatives of Shewanella colwelliana, Vibrio splendidus, and Photobacterium lipolyticum. So far, eicosapentaenoic acid has mainly been reported to occur in eukaryotes and some piezophilic or psychrophilic bacteria. With decreasing temperature, relative contents of EPA (up to 14% of total fatty acids) increased in all strains. Additionally, Shewanella and Vibrio spp. showed a significant increase in monounsaturated fatty acids with lower growth temperature. Analysis of the phospholipid compositions revealed that EPA was present in all three major phospholipid types, namely, phosphatidyl glycerol (PG), cardiolipin and phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PE). However, EPA was enriched in PG and cardiolipin relative to PE. In the tidal flat sediments from which the isolates were obtained, substantial amounts of EPA-containing PG were detected, whereas other typical microeukaryotic phospholipids-being also a possible source of EPA-were abundant at the sediment surface but were present in clearly lower amounts in the anoxic layers beneath 5 cm depth. Therefore, the EPA-containing PG species in the deeper layers in these sediments may indicate the presence of Gammaproteobacteria closely related to the isolates. These bacteria appear to be an important source of EPA in buried, anoxic sediments beneath the layers harboring significant populations of benthic eukaryotes.

Very Low n–3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Status in Austrian Vegetarians and Vegans

Background/Aims: The objective of the study was to collect data on dietary fat intake of omnivores, vegetarians, vegans and semi-omnivores as well as its impact on n–3 and n–6 fatty acids in long-term markers such as sphingolipids, phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) as well as the calculated sphingo- and phospholipids (SPL) of erythrocytes. Method: The present observational study included 98 Austrian adult volunteers of both genders, of which 23 were omnivores, 25 vegetarians, 37 vegans, and 13 semi-omnivores. Information on anthropometry using measured body weight and height was obtained. The amount and composition of ingested fat were calculated from 24-hour recalls and the fatty acid pattern in the phospholipids was assessed using gas chromatography. Results: The unbalanced n–6/n–3 ratio and the limited dietary sources of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in vegans and vegetarians led to reductions in C20:5n–3, C22:5n–3, C22:6n–3 and total n–3 fatty acids in SPL, PC, PS and PE compared with omnivores and semi-omnivores. The total content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids remained unchanged. Conclusion: The vegetarian diet, with an average n–6/n–3 ratio of 10/1, promotes biochemical n–3 tissue decline. To ensure physical, mental and neurological health vegetarians have to reduce the n–6/n–3 ratio with an additional intake of direct sources of EPA and DHA, regardless of age and gender.

Probing the skin permeation of eicosapentaenoic acid and ketoprofen: 2. Comparative depth profiling and metabolism of eicosapentaenoic acid

Unexpected enhancement of the topical delivery of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) across porcine skin was observed previously when fish oil was co-formulated with ketoprofen. In the current work depth profile analysis was used to probe the epidermal conversion of EPA to its 15-hydroxy metabolite in the presence and absence of ketoprofen. Freshly excised full-thickness porcine skin in Franz diffusion cells was dosed (both infinite and finite) with simple formulations based on fish oil as source of EPA. After 24 h the skin was subjected to tape stripping and depth profiles were constructed. Typical depth profiles were obtained, with an inverse relationship between depth and permeant concentration. 15-HEPE was generated in the skin when Hepes-modified Hanks’ balanced salt solution was used, but none was detected when a cetrimide receptor phase was used, highlighting the importance of maintaining skin viability in such exercises. Ketoprofen had a direct influence on the metabolism of EPA and resulting in conversion to its 15-LOX metabolite 15-HEPE. However, this link appears to be only part of the solution of EPA enhancement however, as even in non-viable skin ketoprofen had an enhancing affect.

Omega-3/6 fatty acids: Alternative sources of production

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential components of higher eukaryotes. Single cell oils (SCO) are now widely accepted in the market place and there is a growing awareness of the health benefits of PUFAs, such as γ-linolenic acid (GLA), arachidonic acid (ARA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). ARA and DHA have also been used for fortification of infant formulae in many parts of the world. Fish oils are rich sources of DHA and EPA and a limited number of plant oilseeds are good sources of other PUFAs. Marine protists and dinoflagellates, such as species of Thraustochytrium, Schizochytrium and Crypthecodinium are the rich sources of DHA, whereas microalgae like Phaeodactylum and Monodus are good sources of EPA. Species of lower fungi Mortierella accumulate a high percentage of ARA in the lipid fraction. In this paper, various microbiological and enzymatic methods for synthesis of PUFAs are discussed.

Growth of Artemia franciscana fed Isochrysis sp. and Chaetoceros muelleri during its early life stages

Survival, growth (length and weight), development, proximate composition, and energy content of Artemia franciscana fed for 7 days with Isochrysis sp. (TISO) or with Chaetoceros muelleri (CHGRA) were compared to evaluate the food value of these microalgae. Mean daily survival was not significantly different, and ranged from 86% to 93%. Diet-related differences in growth were noted from the third day, and mean final dry weights (DWs) were 171 and 327 μg ind−1 for Artemia fed TISO and CHGRA respectively. Rates of development were different between diets, with a higher developmental index for Artemia fed TISO before day 3, and a higher index for Artemia fed CHGRA for the rest of the experiment. Chemical analysis showed that carbohydrates decreased to approximately 35% of the initial value in Artemia during the first 24 h, after which they remained approximately stable and similar with both diets. In percentage of total DW, lipids and proteins remained close to their respective initial values, but A. franciscana fed TISO had a higher ash content. A major difference between the two microalgae was the higher protein content of TISO, but this did not result in better growth. Of the two, TISO was richer in docosahexaenoic acid, which might explain the initial faster development, but CHGRA was a better source of eicosapentaenoic acid, which is the most probable explanation of the higher food conversion index, specific growth rate, and energy gain of A. franciscana fed this algae.

Dietary strategies for increasing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) concentrations in bovine milk: a review.

Abstract A review was made of the literature concerning the metabolism of fatty acids in the dairy cow, and the potential of increasing the content of the essential fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; C20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6) in cows' milk. EPA and DHA are two n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which can be synthesised from a-linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3). Both EPA and DHA have anti-thrombotic and anti-carcinogenic effects. The UK Department of Health has recommended that the daily human intake of total n-3 PUFA should be 0.2 g/d, which is approximately double the current average intake. The richest source of dietary EPA and DHA is marine products, but the consumption of fish in the UK is declining. Milk fat consumption constitutes 30% of total fat consumption in the UK diet, and so enhancing the concentration of EPA and DHA in milk fat could be an effective means of increasing the consumption of these fatty acids in the UK. Grass and linseed are rich sources of LNA for dairy cows, while fish oil or marine algae are the richest sources of EPA and DHA. However, a large proportion of these fatty acids ( ca 0.9) are hydrogenated to more saturated fatty acids by the microorganisms in the rumen. The proportion of absorbed n-3 PUFA is therefore only about 7 g/kg ingested n-3 PUFA. Absorbed EPA and DHA are transported around the body as phospholipids, associated with the high-density lipoprotein fraction of the plasma. This fraction is not a good substrate for lipoprotein lipase, which is the enzyme in the mammary gland that removes fatty acids from the circulation for incorporation into milk fat. The uptake by the mammary gland of absorbed EPA and DHA is therefore extremely low. The concentration of EPA and DHA in milk fat therefore remains low even when the diet is enriched with these fatty acids. It is possible that the EPA and DHA present in the milk arise from de novo synthesis of these acids from LNA in the mammary gland. However, while EPA is synthesised from LNA, there appears to be a block on the subsequent synthesis of DHA from EPA. EPA and DHA are not stored in adipose tissue triacylglycerols, and they are not used for oxidative metabolism. There is therefore little competition for circulating EPA and DHA between the mammary gland and adipose tissue, or between secretion and oxidation. There is some potential storage of these acids in the phospholipids of muscle tissue and adipose tissue. Grass is a rich source of LNA, and the LNA content of milk can be enhanced by increasing the herbage content of the diet. This potentially provides more precursors of EPA and DHA. However, increasing the proportion of forage in the diet also tends to increase the extent of rumen biohydrogenation of PUFA as this process is encouraged by higher rumen pH and reduced propionate production. Including either fish oil or some species of marine microalgae in the diet increases the EPA and DHA content of milk. However, these oils can adversely affect rumen function, so that total dry matter intake and milk fat content are reduced. Feeding fish oils to ruminant animals may also not be a sustainable practice in the longer-term. Protecting marine oils from rumen biohydrogenation should prevent the adverse effects on rumen function. However, the evaluation of a protected marine microalgae product suggested that the protection was far from complete, and a reliable means of treating algae to protect it from rumen metabolism still awaits development. Further enhancement of the EPA and DHA content of cows' milk requires more research. Issues, which need to be addressed, are the development of a suitable oil supplement, and a reliable means of protecting it from rumen biohydrogenation. A means of transporting the absorbed EPA and DHA in the circulation so that it is readily taken up by the mammary gland for incorporation into the milk fat also needs to be developed. Changes in the marketing of milk that has been improved in this way would also be required to meet the increased cost of producing this nutritionally enhanced milk.

Dietary strategies for increasing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) concentrations in bovine milk: a review.

Abstract A review was made of the literature concerning the metabolism of fatty acids in the dairy cow, and the potential of increasing the content of the essential fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; C20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6) in cows' milk. EPA and DHA are two n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which can be synthesised from a-linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3). Both EPA and DHA have anti-thrombotic and anti-carcinogenic effects. The UK Department of Health has recommended that the daily human intake of total n-3 PUFA should be 0.2 g/d, which is approximately double the current average intake. The richest source of dietary EPA and DHA is marine products, but the consumption of fish in the UK is declining. Milk fat consumption constitutes 30% of total fat consumption in the UK diet, and so enhancing the concentration of EPA and DHA in milk fat could be an effective means of increasing the consumption of these fatty acids in the UK. Grass and linseed are rich sources of LNA for dairy cows, while fish oil or marine algae are the richest sources of EPA and DHA. However, a large proportion of these fatty acids ( ca 0.9) are hydrogenated to more saturated fatty acids by the microorganisms in the rumen. The proportion of absorbed n-3 PUFA is therefore only about 7 g/kg ingested n-3 PUFA. Absorbed EPA and DHA are transported around the body as phospholipids, associated with the high-density lipoprotein fraction of the plasma. This fraction is not a good substrate for lipoprotein lipase, which is the enzyme in the mammary gland that removes fatty acids from the circulation for incorporation into milk fat. The uptake by the mammary gland of absorbed EPA and DHA is therefore extremely low. The concentration of EPA and DHA in milk fat therefore remains low even when the diet is enriched with these fatty acids. It is possible that the EPA and DHA present in the milk arise from de novo synthesis of these acids from LNA in the mammary gland. However, while EPA is synthesised from LNA, there appears to be a block on the subsequent synthesis of DHA from EPA. EPA and DHA are not stored in adipose tissue triacylglycerols, and they are not used for oxidative metabolism. There is therefore little competition for circulating EPA and DHA between the mammary gland and adipose tissue, or between secretion and oxidation. There is some potential storage of these acids in the phospholipids of muscle tissue and adipose tissue. Grass is a rich source of LNA, and the LNA content of milk can be enhanced by increasing the herbage content of the diet. This potentially provides more precursors of EPA and DHA. However, increasing the proportion of forage in the diet also tends to increase the extent of rumen biohydrogenation of PUFA as this process is encouraged by higher rumen pH and reduced propionate production. Including either fish oil or some species of marine microalgae in the diet increases the EPA and DHA content of milk. However, these oils can adversely affect rumen function, so that total dry matter intake and milk fat content are reduced. Feeding fish oils to ruminant animals may also not be a sustainable practice in the longer-term. Protecting marine oils from rumen biohydrogenation should prevent the adverse effects on rumen function. However, the evaluation of a protected marine microalgae product suggested that the protection was far from complete, and a reliable means of treating algae to protect it from rumen metabolism still awaits development. Further enhancement of the EPA and DHA content of cows' milk requires more research. Issues, which need to be addressed, are the development of a suitable oil supplement, and a reliable means of protecting it from rumen biohydrogenation. A means of transporting the absorbed EPA and DHA in the circulation so that it is readily taken up by the mammary gland for incorporation into the milk fat also needs to be developed. Changes in the marketing of milk that has been improved in this way would also be required to meet the increased cost of producing this nutritionally enhanced milk.

N−3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Inuit of Nunavik

Inuit traditionally consume large amounts of marine foods rich in n-3 fatty acids. Evidence exists that n-3 fatty acids have beneficial effects on key risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Our goal was to verify the relation between plasma phospholipid concentrations of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and various cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Inuit of Nunavik, Canada. The study population consisted of 426 Inuit aged 18-74 y who participated in a 1992 health survey. Data were obtained through home interviews and clinical visits. Plasma samples were analyzed for phospholipid fatty acid composition. Expressed as the percentage of total fatty acids, geometric mean concentrations of EPA, DHA, and their combination in plasma phospholipids were 1.99%, 4.52%, and 6.83%, respectively. n-3 Fatty acids were positively associated with HDL-cholesterol concentrations and inversely associated with triacylglycerol concentrations and the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol. In contrast, concentrations of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and plasma glucose increased as n-3 fatty acid concentrations increased. There were no significant associations between n-3 fatty acids and diastolic and systolic blood pressure and plasma insulin. Consumption of marine products, the main source of EPA and DHA, appears to beneficially affect some cardiovascular disease risk factors. The traditional Inuit diet, which is rich in n-3 fatty acids, is probably responsible for the low mortality rate from ischemic heart disease in this population.

Eicosapentaenoic acid release from the red alga Pachymeniopsis lanceolata by enzymatic degradation.

Forty-eight species of seaweeds from Japanese waters were screened for the valuable polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). The eight species that contained the highest levels of these compounds were analyzed in detail. Of all species tested the red alga Pachymeniopsis lanceolata contained the highest EPA concentration, and it was present as both the free and bound forms. EPA constituted 38.7% of total fatty acids, and polar lipids were the main constituent of the total lipids in P. lanceolata. EPA was obtained from the marine algae P. lanceolata by enzymatic hydrolysis of the total lipids extract using phospholipase A2 (PLA2). The release of EPA reached a plateau after 10 min of enzymatic treatment. These results suggest that P. lanceolata is a useful natural source of EPA and that PLA2 treatment is a convenient method for obtaining EPA from the red alga.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) production from microorganisms: a review

Eicosapentaenoic acid EPA has been shown to be of major importance in the prevention and treatment of a range of human diseases and disorders. At present fish oil is the only source of EPA that is considered unattractive because it contains substantial amounts of undesirable fatty acids and cholesterol. Consequently, alternative sources of EPA are being sought, especially from algae and from fungi of the order Mucorales. This review presents information about EPA producing microorganisms, data on the production and recovery aspects along with the potential of microorganisms as commercial sources of EPA.

Effect of dietary oils on the production of n−3 and n−6 metabolites of leukocyte 5-lipoxygenase in five rat strains

We examined the influence of various dietary oils, including linseed and fish oil on the relative rates of leukotriene B 4 (LTB 4) and LTB 5 production by rat peritoneal exudate cells in five rat strains. While there was an association between the membrane phospholipid levels of the fatty acid precursors (arachidonic acid (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)) and the rate of synthesis of their respective 5-lipoxygenase products (LTB 4 and LTB 5), the rate of LTB 4 synthesis was a combined function of both AA and EPA levels. We observed a strong linear relationship (correlation coefficient = 0.99) between the ratio of EPA/AA in the cell membrane phospholipids and the ratio of LTB 5/LTB 4 produced by these cells in vitro; this association was independent of genetic (strain) variability and was independent of the source of EPA (dietary EPA or EPA endogenously synthesized from dietary α-linolenic acid).

Fungal mycelia as a novel source of eicosapentaenoic acid: Activation of enzyme(s) involved in eicosapentaenoic acid production at low temperature

Several filamentous fungi belonging to the genus Mortierella were found to produce large amounts of 5,8,11,14,17- cis - eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in their mycelia only when grown at low temperature (12°C), i.e., not at physiological growth temperature (20–28°C). The results of experiments with cell-free extracts suggested that this unique phenomenon is due to activation of enzyme(s) involved in EPA formation at low temperature. Mortierella alpina 1S-4 produced 0.3 g/l of EPA (27 mg/g dry mycelia). This high productivity show the practical significance of these novel EPA producers.

Chicken — an Alternative to Fish and Shellfish as a Dietary Source of Eicosapentaenoic Acid

Chicken — an Alternative to Fish and Shellfish as a Dietary Source of Eicosapentaenoic Acid