Sound Substitutions Research Articles

PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE PRODUCTION IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

The paper presents an analysis of the phonological features of preschool children. The article aims to find patterns of typical and atypical errors. A method was created to conduct the study, which includes three levels of research - at the level of words, sentence repetition, and generating one's speech by picture (spontaneous speech). The results show that children's most common phonological errors are as follows: sound substitution, elision of sound, metathesis of sound, elision of syllable, and deletion of consonants clustered in a syllable. The data obtained from the noun generation task was informative enough about the phonological development of the children being studied. The repeated speech task was accessible for the children and of little value in analyzing the phonological processes. The sentence generation task provides sufficient information about sentence structure, prosody, rate, and force of speech. The test serves a diagnostic and therapeutic purpose. The diagnostic analysis is clear and informative enough to create a therapeutic program based on the examination results. Subsequently, it could be applied for re-testing to measure the progress in the child's output. In addition, the average time children take to administer the whole test is less than 18 minutes, which is an additional positive aspect of the test. The ultimate goal is to standardize this test to assist clinicians in establishing norms by examining Bulgarian-speaking children and assessing their phonological development.

Phonological Process of Word-Final Consonant Sounds in Indonesian Learners by Japanese Speakers (Case Study of Japanesia Online Course Students)

This study aims to analyze the phonological processes and contributing factors affecting the pronunciation of final consonant sounds by native Japanese speakers learning Indonesian. The research employs the theory of generative transformational phonology, using distinctive features to address the research questions. A qualitative descriptive approach was adopted, utilizing data from the Japanesia course's online class videos on YouTube, collected through observation and note-taking techniques. The analysis identifies three main phonological processes in Japanese learners' pronunciation of Indonesian final consonants: sound substitution (e.g., [n] to [ŋ] and [l] to [r]), elision of [h], and addition of sounds such as [u] following [r] and [s], as well as aspirated [h] after [t] and [k]. These phonological adjustments reflect the absence of certain Indonesian sounds in Japanese, prompting learners to adapt pronunciations to their native phonological system. Furthermore, the Japanese language’s predominant open syllable structure (CVCV) generally excludes word-final consonants aside from nasals, contributing to these adaptations.

Automatic Speech Recognition in Primary Progressive Apraxia of Speech.

Transcribing disordered speech can be useful when diagnosing motor speech disorders such as primary progressive apraxia of speech (PPAOS), who have sound additions, deletions, and substitutions, or distortions and/or slow, segmented speech. Since transcribing speech can be a laborious process and requires an experienced listener, using automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems for diagnosis and treatment monitoring is appealing. This study evaluated the efficacy of a readily available ASR system (wav2vec 2.0) in transcribing speech of PPAOS patients to determine if the word error rate (WER) output by the ASR can differentiate between healthy speech and PPAOS and/or among its subtypes, whether WER correlates with AOS severity, and how the ASR's errors compare to those noted in manual transcriptions. Forty-five patients with PPAOS and 22 healthy controls were recorded repeating 13 words, 3 times each, which were transcribed manually and using wav2vec 2.0. The WER and phonetic and prosodic speech errors were compared between groups, and ASR results were compared against manual transcriptions. Mean overall WER was 0.88 for patients and 0.33 for controls. WER significantly correlated with AOS severity and accurately distinguished between patients and controls but not between AOS subtypes. The phonetic and prosodic errors from the ASR transcriptions were also unable to distinguish between subtypes, whereas errors calculated from human transcriptions were. There was poor agreement in the number of phonetic and prosodic errors between the ASR and human transcriptions. This study demonstrates that ASR can be useful in differentiating healthy from disordered speech and evaluating PPAOS severity but does not distinguish PPAOS subtypes. ASR transcriptions showed weak agreement with human transcriptions; thus, ASR may be a useful tool for the transcription of speech in PPAOS, but the research questions posed must be carefully considered within the context of its limitations. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26359417.

Unveiling Phonological Patterns: An Introductory Exploration

Phonology is one of the main subjects that make up the study of language, which is called the scientific study of the structure of language. One way to understand the meaning of language is to compare it to other parts of language. Basically, phonology is a science that studies the sound structure of language, as opposed to the study of sentence structure (grammar), word structure (morphology), and language variation over time (history). This definition is too simplistic and unnecessary. The research method used in writing this article is library research, this method is to search for reference materials through previous scientific works, in the form of journals, theses, books, etc. According to Seewoester (2009), humor is the manipulation of language at the linguistic level. Creating confusion and ambiguity with your words can influence many reactions from your audience, including laughter and confusion. Be careful with your language. Some strategies for creating humor in comic situations use sound effects such as sound substitution, deletion, addition, deductive pairing, metathesis, and sound compatibility.

Assessing the Phonological Abilities of Jordanian Arabic-speaking Children with Phonological Disorders

Objectives: This study investigated the validity of four language measures, i.e., phonological mean length of utterance (PMLU), the proportion of whole-word proximity (PWP), the proportion of whole-word correctness (PWC), and percentage of correct consonants, in assessing phonological development in Jordanian Arabic (JA) speaking children with phonological disorders in comparison with typically developing (TD) children.Methods: The study involved 88 monolingual JA-speaking children within the age range of 5 to 6 years, with 44 children diagnosed with phonological disorders and 44 TD children. Each group was further categorized into two age groups, namely 5;0-5;6 and 5,7-6,0. Data were gathered by observing the interactions between the children and their caregivers or parents using age-appropriate toys. A minimum of 100 utterances were collected from each participant.Results: The study found that TD children performed better than the children with phonological disorders on all measures, indicating delayed phonological performance in the phonological disorders group. Positive correlations between the measures were also observed, indicating their ability to provide significant information about children’s phonological abilities. Specific speech sound errors and substitution patterns exhibited by children with phonological disorders were identified, highlighting the motor control and articulatory challenges experienced by this group. Age was found to be a significant factor in the development of TD children, while children with phonological disorders showed similar scores across different age groups.Conclusion: These findings support the usage of the four measures for understanding phonological development in children with phonological disorders, accurately diagnosing them and tracking their progress.

Longitudinal flortaucipir, metabolism and volume differ between phonetic and prosodic speech apraxia.

Progressive apraxia of speech (PAOS) is a neurodegenerative motor-speech disorder that most commonly arises from a four-repeat tauopathy. Recent studies have established that progressive apraxia of speech is not a homogenous disease but rather there are distinct subtypes: the phonetic subtype is characterized by distorted sound substitutions, the prosodic subtype by slow and segmented speech and the mixed subtype by a combination of both but lack of predominance of either. There is some evidence that cross-sectional patterns of neurodegeneration differ across subtypes, although it is unknown whether longitudinal patterns of neurodegeneration differ. We examined longitudinal patterns of atrophy on MRI, hypometabolism on 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-PET and tau uptake on flortaucipir-PET in a large cohort of subjects with PAOS that had been followed for many years. Ninety-one subjects with PAOS (51 phonetic, 40 prosodic) were recruited by the Neurodegenerative Research Group. Of these, 54 (27 phonetic, 27 prosodic) returned for annual follow-up, with up to seven longitudinal visits (total visits analysed = 217). Volumes, metabolism and flortaucipir uptake were measured for subcortical and cortical regions, for all scans. Bayesian hierarchical models were used to model longitudinal change across imaging modalities with PAOS subtypes being compared at baseline, 4 years from baseline, and in terms of rates of change. The phonetic group showed smaller volumes and worse metabolism in Broca's area and the striatum at baseline and after 4 years, and faster rates of change in these regions, compared with the prosodic group. There was also evidence of faster spread of hypometabolism and flortaucipir uptake into the temporal and parietal lobes in the phonetic group. In contrast, the prosodic group showed smaller cerebellar dentate, midbrain, substantia nigra and thalamus volumes at baseline and after 4 years, as well as faster rates of atrophy, than the phonetic group. Greater hypometabolism and flortaucipir uptake were also observed in the cerebellar dentate and substantia nigra in the prosodic group. Mixed findings were observed in the supplementary motor area and precentral cortex, with no clear differences observed across phonetic and prosodic groups. These findings support different patterns of disease spread in PAOS subtypes, with corticostriatal patterns in the phonetic subtype and brainstem and thalamic patterns in the prosodic subtype, providing insight into the pathophysiology and heterogeneity of PAOS.

Diffusion tensor imaging-based multi-fiber tracking reconstructions can regionally differentiate phonetic versus prosodic subtypes of progressive apraxia of speech

Two subtypes of progressive apraxia of speech (PAOS) have been recognized: phonetic PAOS (PAOS_ph) where speech output is dominated by distorted sound substitutions and prosodic PAOS (PAOS_pr) which is dominated by segmented speech. We investigate whether these PAOS subtypes have different white matter microstructural abnormalities measured by diffusion tensor tractography. Thirty-three patients with PAOS (21 PAOS_ph and 12 PAOS_pr) and 19 healthy controls were recruited by the Neurodegenerative Research Group (NRG) and underwent diffusion MRI. Using a whole-brain tractography approach, fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) were extracted for cortico-cortical, cortico-subcortical, cortical-projection, and cerebello-cortical white matter tracts. A hierarchical linear model was applied to assess tract-level FA and MD across groups. Both PAOS_ph and PAOS_pr showed degeneration of cortico-cortical, cortico-subcortical, cortical-projection, and cerebello-cortical white matter tracts compared to controls. However, degeneration of the body of corpus callosum, superior thalamic radiation, and superior cerebellar peduncle was greater in PAOS_pr compared to PAOS_ph, and degeneration of the inferior segment of the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) was greater in PAOS_ph compared to PAOS_pr. Worse parkinsonism correlated with greater degeneration of cortico-cortical and cortico-subcortical tracts in PAOS_ph. Apraxia of speech articulatory error score correlated with degeneration of the superior cerebellar peduncle tracts in PAOS_pr. Phonetic and prosodic PAOS involve the compromise of a similar network of tracts, although there are connectivity differences between types. Whereas clinical parameters are the current gold standard to distinguish PAOS subtypes, our results allege the use of DTI-based tractography as a supplementary method to investigate such variants.

Sound Production of English Dental Fricatives by Papuan EFL Students

This study aims to reveal to what extent Papuan EFL students correctly produce English dental fricatives and to find out what consonants substitute voiceless dental fricative /θ/ and voiced dental fricative /ð/ when misarticulation occurs. A descriptive analysis of 30 native Papuan EFL students was taken as the participants of the study. Data were collected by giving pronunciation tests and targets of either voiceless dental fricative /θ/ or voiced dental fricative /ð/ in an onset or coda syllable position. Correct sound production of English dental fricatives, both voiceless and voiced dental fricatives, by Papuan EFL students hardly found and almost unrecognized that only 12.0% of Papuan EFL students correctly pronounce voiceless dental fricative /θ/ and only 3.3% of Papuan EFL students correctly pronounce voiced dental fricative /ð/. It can be stated that the sound production of English dental fricatives lies in low-level production. Furthermore, Papuan EFL students mostly substitute voiceless dental fricative /θ/ with voiceless alveolar plosive /t/ indicated by 84.0% sound substitution. In other words, Papuan L1 speakers dominantly substitute the consonant /θ/ with the consonant /t/. Papuan EFL students frequently substitute voiced dental fricative /ð/ with both voiced alveolar plosive /d/ indicated by 51.6%, and voiceless alveolar plosive /t/ indicated by 43.3% substitution. Thus, Papuan L1 speakers primarily replace the consonant /ð/ with both consonant /d/ and /t/. The implications for the EFL teaching and learning process may assist Papuan EFL students in learning the correct pronunciation of English dental fricatives in order to improve their speaking proficiency

Phonological Processes Governing Borrowing from English to Lungu, Mambwe, and Namwanga Languages

This article accounts for the phonological processes which govern borrowing from English to Lungu, Mambwe, and Namwanga (LuMaNa) languages. Guthrie (1948) classifies Lungu as M14, Mambwe as M15, and Namwanga as M22. Data were collected using elicitation, comparative, and document analysis methods. The paper employed Lexical Phonology and Morphology, and the comparative Bantu morphophonology theories. The study shows that LuMaNa languages use four major phonological processes to borrow from the English language, namely, epenthesis, sound substitution, metathesis or permutation, and vowel lengthening. Vowel epenthesis is used to create open syllables and break up consonant clusters during borrowing into LuMaNa. Consonant sound substitution is used to modify loanwords through devoicing. LuMaNa languages obey the following general devoicing rules; q/ð→t, q/ð→ f, z → s and defy the rest of the rules. Vowel sound substitution is achieved in LuMaNa through adaptation and nativisation of phonetic approximation. LuMaNa also borrow words through metathesis where two adjacent sounds reshuffle their positions to facilitate ease of articulation. Vowel length is used to borrow words from English to enable words to adjust and fit in the phonology of the target language. The study concludes that LuMaNa have similarities in the application of phonological processes during borrowing.

Kekerabatan Bahasa Rejang di Kelurahan Kepala Siring Kecamatan Curup Tengah Kabupaten Rejang Lebong dan Bahasa Minangkabau di Desa Batang Kabung Kecamatan Pariaman Timur Kota Pariaman

The objectives in carrying out this research study were (1) to determine how the percentage level of kinship of the languages to be studied in that area; (2) to determine the length of time of separation between the languages studied in the region; and (3) to describe sound correspondences between the languages studied in the region. Furthermore, in this study using quantitative methods and qualitative methods. The objects analyzed in the implementation of this research study were the Rejang language in Kepala Siring Village, Curup Tengah District, Rejang Lebong Regency and the Minangkabau language in Batang Kabung Village, East Pariaman District, Pariaman City. As for the research instrument, there are 200 Morris Swadesh basic vocabulary and 300 cultural vocabulary that have been compiled and adapted to the conditions of the area where the language area is used. This study uses the proficient method which is known to be in collecting research data. Furthermore, the percentage of kinship level of the two languages is calculated using the lexicostatistical method which is 38.5%. Meanwhile, the length of time the separation was for 2200 years ago or around 177 BC. As for the total cognates of these two languages, based on 500 vocabularies, there are 210 vocabularies. As well as found five forms of sound correspondence between languages, namely 40 forms of similar vocabulary, 59 sound substitutions or more commonly known as phonemes, 38 sound reduction vocabulary or more commonly understood as phonemes, 72 additional sound/phoneme vocabulary, and 1 metathesis vocabulary.

PENGETAHUAN GENERASI MUDA BANJAR ATAS LEKSIKAL FLORA DAN FAUNA KALIMANTAN SEBAGAI WACANA PELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN

This study aims to reveal Malang Banjarese’s young generation foreigner knowledge on Borneo flora fauna lexical and it’s used in terms of phonology and grammatical. An instrument in this research is a questionnaire that contains flora fauna lexical from Banjarese literature. The literature is folklore, folksong, rhyme, proverb, and poetry. There are 60 subjects taken based on specific criteria. Interviews were conducted to 10 persons. In addition, focus group discussion is held to reveal some data that may not be revealed through the questionnaire. The research results show that Banjarese’s young generation knowledge on Borneo flora and fauna lexical is dominant in “very low” prologue. On the other side, there’s phonological process found in bidawang lexical as sound substitution and neutralization so it’s turned into pidawang, didawang, and di gawang. Di gawang pronunciation changes the meaning from ‘animal’ to ‘wicket’. This is caused by deforestation that makes the younger generation of Banjarese’s doesn’t know that bidawang is an animal because this animal can’t be found in the wild. On the other hand, there’s a gap in this study (research gap) as this research does not provide all the young generation of Banjarese’s in early adolescence or young generations of Banjarese’s that weren’t going overseas or have a different background. Hence, this study can be developed by widening the scope of the research subject (in this case the young generation of Banjarese’s).

Linguistic Strategies in the Translation/Transliteration of the Names of Biblical Books into Igbo and Yoruba

As discoveries are made, new words are needed to capture and describe the various new realities. These new words and ideas need to be either translated or transliterated into other languages for the benefit of the users of those languages. Consequently, strategies used successfully for previous translations and transliterations need to be studied, understood, and defined in order to maintain consistency in subsequent translations. It is from this perspective that this work seeks to unveil the translation and transliteration strategies employed in expressing the names of the sixty-six books of the Protestant Bible in Igbo and Yoruba. Drawing on the data sourced from Igbo and Yoruba Bibles, this study shows that literal translation, direct translations, and borrowing were used. The borrowed words were adapted into the two indigenous languages using sound substitution, sound insertion, or approximation of Igbo/Yoruba phonetic symbols to English orthography.

Impact of Phonemic Transcription on Learners’ English Spelling: A Segmental Study

Acquiring sufficient proficiency in English pronunciation is a strenuous task for EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners. Among other reasons, one primary reason is the lack of correspondence between the sounds and letters of the English language which makes English pronunciation a hard task for foreign learners. To reduce this discrepancy of sounds and spellings in order to improve the pronunciation of language learners, phonemic transcription is used quite widely by EFL/ESL teachers across the world. The phonetic/phonemic transcription is based on the internationally recognized symbols commonly referred to as IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) offered by IPA (International Phonetic Association). Despite the immense usefulness of phonemic transcription, it has the potential to negatively affect learners’ normal English spellings. The present research aimed to explore the impact of continuous phonemic transcription on English spellings of EFL learners through a Pre experimental research design. The study participants were the students of Diploma level in the Functional Courses Department, National University of Modern Languages (henceforth NUML). A range of phonemic passages was used as a research tool to explore the impact of sounds on spellings and Cook’s classification of spelling errors was adapted as a model for the categorization of spelling errors. Findings of the study reveal various categories of sound substitution errors under the impact of consonants, vowels, and diphthongs. With continuous practice of converting phonemic transcription into normal English spelling/orthography, certain consonantal sounds like /ð/, /?/, /,/s/, /k/, /z/, /w/ and vowel sounds like /i:/, /i/, /æ/, /?/, /?/, /?/, /?/ show the Mother Tongue(MT) impact of sounds on spellings. While in the case of diphthongs, only two sounds /a?/, and /e?/ exhibit the impact of sounds on spellings.

Spatial patterns of elevated magnetic susceptibility in progressive apraxia of speech

PurposeProgressive apraxia of speech (PAOS) is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting the planning or programming of speech. Little is known about its magnetic susceptibility profiles indicative of biological processes such as iron deposition and demyelination. This study aims to clarify (1) the pattern of susceptibility in PAOS patients, (2) the susceptibility differences between the phonetic (characterized by predominance of distorted sound substitutions and additions) and prosodic (characterized by predominance of slow speech rate and segmentation) subtypes of PAOS, and (3) the relationships between susceptibility and symptom severity. MethodsTwenty patients with PAOS (nine phonetic and eleven prosodic subtypes) were prospectively recruited and underwent a 3 Tesla MRI scan. They also underwent detailed speech, language, and neurological evaluations. Quantitative susceptibility maps (QSM) were reconstructed from multi-echo gradient echo MRI images. Region of interest analysis was conducted to estimate susceptibility coefficients in several subcortical and frontal regions. We compared susceptibility values between PAOS and an age-matched control group and performed a correlation analysis between susceptibilities and an apraxia of speech rating scale (ASRS) phonetic and prosodic feature ratings. ResultsThe magnetic susceptibility of PAOS was statistically greater than that of controls in subcortical regions (left putamen, left red nucleus, and right dentate nucleus) (p < 0.01, also survived FDR correction) and in the left white-matter precentral gyrus (p < 0.05, but not survived FDR correction). The prosodic patients showed greater susceptibilities than controls in these subcortical and precentral regions. The susceptibility in the left red nucleus and in the left precentral gyrus correlated with the prosodic sub-score of the ASRS. ConclusionMagnetic susceptibility in PAOS patients was greater than controls mainly in the subcortical regions. While larger samples are needed before QSM is considered ready for clinical differential diagnosis, the present study contributes to our understanding of magnetic susceptibility changes and the pathophysiology of PAOS.

Organizational and economic approaches and methods of development of the construction industry in a climate of sanctions pressure

Introduction. In the current climate, a central focus in supporting the development of Russia’s construction industry is on what measures are included in the government’s crisis package. In the first quarter of 2022, it included 17 measures directly and 40 measures indirectly impacting the nation’s construction and housing-and-utilities sectors. The prompt passage of such measures, which are to be implemented based on relevant resolutions, enactments, and laws, is aimed at creating a barrier-less environment with a focus on accelerating construction, keeping down building materials prices, and adjusting the prices of existing contracts for supply of building materials in a timely manner. The ever-mounting sanctions pressure is only raising the bar on objectives to be achieved in the area of residential construction, infrastructural transformations, and improvements in construction process innovation, including the implementation of digitalization and use of platform-based solutions to communications issues. Given the scale of the work that lies ahead, there is a need to search for new forms of managing the sector, with a focus on experimental testing of potential methods for resolving the issues in the construction sector that have exacerbated in the conditions of external sanctions pressure.&#x0D; &#x0D; Materials and methods. The authors’ view of transformations in Russia’s construction sector is focused on the following: 1) the need to restructure the nation’s construction authorities and establish three separate ministries — one for construction, one for municipal services, and one for utility infrastructure; 2) the need to employ alternative models for tackling the housing problem and the need to experimentally test the savings-and-loan and rent models; 3) the need for sound import substitution measures and price-setting procedures; 4) the need to create a comfortable business environment with relevant out-of-court settlement mechanisms in place; 5) the need to establish new requirements for applied research. The last item is of particular significance, for any support and development measures need to be scientifically substantiated through the utilization of a variety of problem solving methods and experimental testing and scaling up of newly developed mechanisms and methods. &#x0D; &#x0D; Results. Best practices related to seeking effective solutions indicate that in a mobilization economy testing a particular organizational, investment, or digitalization model in real time will help to not only obtain an objective picture of its effectiveness but also identify the bottlenecks to its application in practice. Moreover, the authors’ analysis suggests that, if the nation’s expertise centers are to resolve most of the development objectives for the construction sector in the current climate of external sanctions pressure, they must not overlook the benefits of creating ecosystems and employing platform-based solutions.&#x0D; &#x0D; Conclusions. Given regional best practices in residential construction, the use of long established EU requirements for price-setting in construction, the inevitable shift to Building Information Modeling, and the current level of applied research in Russia, it appears to be worth focusing on maximizing the industry’s research potential. The shortest route is by way of concerted efforts in the development, experimental testing, and implementation of new models for the development of the construction, municipal services, and utility infrastructure sectors.

Gairaigo in Japanese and Its Cultural Implication

This research is an attempt to study gairaigo in Japanese. The study is focused on the formation, meaning, and cultural implication of gairaigo. The data for this study are Japanese loan words borrowed from English taken from NHK Easy Japanese News from May 2021 to October 2021. The research used qualitative and quantitative approaches. The data are collected by using the non-participant observation method. The analysis of data is done by using the intralingual equivalent method. The result of the study shows from 32 gairaigo collected from NHK Easy Japanese News, 98% of them are adapted to the Japanese linguistic system in the form of sound insertion and substitution. The formation of gairaigo is done by adjusting linguistic forms of English into Japanese. The formation of gairaigo causes the change in meaning which also implies Japanese culture. The formation of gairaigo while maintaining the linguistic features of the Japanese language is a sign of the language loyalty of Japanese speakers to their language.

Ein korpuslinguistischer Beitrag zu Herkunft und Entwicklung des negativen Indefinitumskein

AbstractThis article discusses the origin and historical development of the German n-indefinitekein, which is an unusual negator because it does not share the initialnthat marks virtually all other negatives in German. Despite the discussion about its origins going back to the nineteenth century, it is still unclear howkeinfirst emerged and out of which other forms it developed. In this paper, new light is shed on an old controversy using new data and modern corpus-linguistic tools, in this case theReferenzkorpus Mittelhochdeutsch(ReM). The article first summarises the current state of research before presenting and analysing the data. In combination with additional evidence, the results show that certain hypotheses that have to this day been treated as accurate are in fact not viable. Subsequently, a solution that combines some of the existing theses and is compatible with the data is presented: Morphological reanalysis and the ensuing back-formation ofkein’s predecessornehein – in combination with a phonologically conditioned sound substitution triggered by a shift of the syllable boundary – in the context of negative concord seems the most likely candidate for an accurate explanation of the emergence and early usage patterns ofkeinin Middle High German. Incongruent evidence from Swiss German, however, suggests that partially convergent developments ensuing from different indefinite forms have taken place in that variety.

Netizens’ criticism of the government’s policy of “Meme Lockdown” during the Covid-19 pandemic; in Indonesia

Indonesia was shocked by the presence of the Corona-19 virus in early 2020. Indonesian people respond to policies related to handling Covid-19 by closing access to their territory and making memes about corona. One of the interesting phenomena that occurred during the Covid-19 pandemic was the number of banners or memes posted in the alleys of human settlements in Indonesia, as a form of freedom of opinion to respond to the policies of the Indonesian Government Program in preventing the more massive spread of Covid-19. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method with the data used in this study is a language game on photo uploads in the form of memes on Instagram accounts. The selected data is adjusted to the research needs and is representative data. The purpose of this study is to describe language games with sound and semantic substitution in the Lockdown Policy Meme on the Covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia through Instagram. The results showed that in the field of phonology tended to use substitution language games, while in the field of semantics, the most widely used was homonym language games. The language game in memes during the Covid-19 Pandemic has not yet become a force affecting the policies implemented by the Indonesian government. In other words, the anxiety and uncertainty were hidden in the Corona meme only meant as a pun or humor that can make the reader smile a little and feel optimistic. This paper has implications for developing criticism of government policies via the internet as a medium of communication and for managing the balance between stability and change due to the Covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia. This paper fulfils an identified need to study how the internet as public sphere and medium to communicate about government policies in the current era.

Visualising pre-standard spelling practice: Understanding the interchange of ‹ch(t)› and ‹th(t)› in Older Scots

Alphabetic spelling systems rarely display perfectly consistent one-to-one relationships between graphic marks and speech sounds. This is particularly true for languages without a standard written form. Nevertheless, such non-standard spelling systems are far from being anarchic, as they take on a conventional structure resulting from shared communities and histories of practice. Elucidating said structure can be a substantial challenge for researchers presented with textual evidence alone, since attested variation may represent differences in sound structure as well as differences in the graphophonological mapping itself. In order to tease apart these factors, we present a tool-Medusa-that allows users to create visual representations of the relationship between sounds and spellings (sound substitution sets and spelling substitution sets). Our case study for the tool deals with a longstanding issue in the historical record of mediaeval Scots, where word-final &lt;cht&gt;, &lt;ch&gt;, &lt;tht&gt; and &lt;th&gt; appear to be interchangeable, despite representing reflexes of distinct pre-Scots sounds: [x], [xt] and [θ]. Focusing on the documentary record in the Linguistic Atlas of Older Scots ([LAOS, 2013]), our exploration surveys key graphemic categories, mapping their lexical distributions and taking us through evidence from etymology, phonological typology, palaeography and historical orthograpy. The result is a novel reconstruction of the underlying sound values for each one of the target items in the record, alongside a series of sound and spelling changes that account for the data.

THE PHENOMENON OF LANGUAGE GAMES AS COLLEGE STUDENTS RESPONSES TO THE REVISED CRIMINAL CODE DRAFT 2019: A SOCIOLINGUISTICS STUDY

A language game is a form of utterance that obtains various deviations, which is intended for various purposes and contains of more than one meaning that depends on how it used and to whom it is intended. In connection with this topic, this paper was made to analyze the phenomenon of language game originating from among students in some demonstrations aimed at the government especially the House of Parliament (DPR) regarding the revised criminal code draft (RUUKUHP) 2019 that was launched to be ratified. For this reason, the data used are portraits of posters and banners sourced from various cities in Indonesia with various forms of utterance. Accordingly, this study will analyze the data based on sociolinguistic studies to understand language problems related to the elements and functions of language. Data were analyzed using a descriptive qualitative method. Eventually, there were various forms of language games that were found such as, sound substitution, sound addition, abbreviations, metaphor, polysemic, idiom, entailment and rhyme. The language game mentioned was created with various objectives such as criticizing related policies, making fun of the related performance and just creating humor.