Sortal Classifiers Research Articles

Schooling and language usage matter in heritage bilingual processing: Sortal classifiers in Mandarin

Mandarin sortal classifiers simultaneously encode semantic and grammatical form class cues. Building on a second language (L2) study of Grüter et al. we used the same visual world eye-tracking experiment, designed to examine the relative use of the two cues, testing Mandarin heritage speakers (HSs) living in an English-speaking environment. Given the importance of understanding individual differences, the present study also examined if/how individual HSs may systematically differ as a function of experience with Mandarin. As a group, HSs – like the first language (L1) group in Grüter et al.’s study – showed a clear reliance on the grammatical form class cue. Nevertheless, individual HSs with Mandarin schooling and with more Mandarin social exposure/use showed more reliance on semantics, the L2 pattern observed in Grüter et al. We discuss why this latter pattern might have obtained (formal and informal literacy), while highlighting the value of individual difference approaches to understanding HS processing.

On the Distribution and Origin of Sortal Classifiers in Altaic Languages (in Chinese)

The grammatical feature of sortal classifiers, common in East and Southeast Asian languages, is also found in 15 of the 65 Altaic languages we have examined, though the classifiers are far fewer and used optionally. These observations suggest that the Altaic classifier systems are not indigenous. Based on the Single Origin Hypothesis that Chinese is the only language with an indigenous classifier system in Eurasia, we propose that the rise of classifiers in Altaic is due to the influence of neighboring classifier languages. Having first confirmed that the putative classifiers in these 15 languages are genuine classifiers, we then examine the phonological and semantic characteristics of the classifiers identified in each language and detect the influence from either Chinese or Persian. Taking historical and geographical factors into consideration, we suggest that classifier languages east of Uyghur were influenced by Chinese, while those to the west are influenced by Persian; Uyghur itself was influenced by both. Assuming that Persian classifiers are not indigenous either, these findings suggest that the Single Origin Hypothesis is applicable to classifier languages in Altaic.

Classification in Sumerian cuneiform and the implementation of iClassifier

Sumerian, an agglutinative language of unknown affiliation, surfaced in mankind’s earliest written sources around 3300 BCE. It continued to play a salient role in the transmission of cuneiform cultures for more than three millennia, even after its disappearance as a vernacular (around 2000 BCE). From its beginnings, semantic classification played an important role in this initially predominantly semasiographic-ideographic script. Here, such classifications are contrasted with and compared to the normalized ‘consolidated’ standard set of pre- and post-nominal classifiers – generally known as ‘determinatives’ – which function chiefly as sortal classifiers. It is further suggested here that the relationship between classifying nouns and classified nouns is best described in terms of nominal apposition. This article further provides updated examples of how the relevant information was entered into the iClassifier digital tool, specially designed for such comparisons in order to improve our understanding of how cuneiform classifiers mark their host words and to make them comparable with similar features in other complex scripts and other languages. We will then briefly survey how the answers to queries in the iClassifier may help to illuminate ‘the diverse mindsets of ancient Mesopotamia’.

Sortal classifiers and noun categorization in Zauzou

Abstract This paper investigates the sortal classifier system in Zauzou, a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Southwest China. Three etymological subclasses – repeater, non-repeater, and quasi-repeaters – are identified in two morphosyntactic contexts: the bare classifier phrase [n+clf] and the full noun phrase [n+mod+clf], serving as an “individualizer” that transforms unindividualized nominal concepts into referential individuals. The three types of classifiers classify nouns on the basis of different semantic parameters that differ in terms of semantic contrastiveness. Animacy, shape, size, rigidity and quanta are non-contrastive semantic parameters commonly found among non-repeaters. Repeaters and quasi-repeaters categorize nouns primarily on the basis of semantically contrastive taxonomy, meronomy, or arrangement. With respect to the function of quantification, repeaters, quasi-repeaters, and non-repeaters are identical in [n+mod+clf] but diverge in [n+clf]. They do not uniformly render the singular interpretation with all kinds of referents in [n+clf]. Non-repeaters are more grammaticalized classifiers than (quasi-)repeaters. The Zauzou data provide evidence for the development from repeaters to non-repeaters, on a par with the commonly recognized grammaticalization path from nouns to classifiers, which is conditioned by two types of “parameter shift”. This study offers a descriptive model that effectively captures the relationship between semantic-functional properties of sortal classifiers and their historical development in “repeater” languages.

Phylogenetic analyses for the origin of sortal classifiers in Mongolic, Tungusic, and Turkic languages

AbstractNumeral classifiers are one of the most common types of nominal classification systems. Their geographical distribution worldwide is concentrated in Asia, which infers a scheme of diffusion from a linguistic innovation. This study investigates the origin of classifier systems in the Mongolic, Tungusic, and Turkic languages in the Altaic region with a phylogenetic analysis based on data from 55 languages. The Single Origin Hypothesis suggests that Sinitic is the most probable original source of classifier systems found in Asia (Her & Li 2023). Under this hypothesis, classifiers are unlikely to be an indigenous feature of the Altaic region, and indeed their phylogenetic signal turns out to be weak. We also conduct a qualitative analysis on the classifier inventory of the studied languages to assess the robustness of phylogenetic methods. The results also indicate that classifiers are most likely a borrowed feature in the Mongolic, Tungusic, and Turkic languages.

Tracking semantic relatedness: numeral classifiers guide gaze to visual world objects

Directing visual attention toward items mentioned within utterances can optimize understanding the unfolding spoken language and preparing appropriate behaviors. In several languages, numeral classifiers specify semantic classes of nouns but can also function as reference trackers. Whereas all classifier types function to single out objects for reference in the real world and may assist attentional guidance, we propose that only sortal classifiers efficiently guide visual attention by being inherently attached to the nouns' semantics, since container classifiers are pragmatically attached to the nouns they classify, and the default classifiers index a noun without specifying the semantics. By contrast, container classifiers are pragmatically attached, and default classifiers index a noun without specifying the semantics. Using eye tracking and the “visual world paradigm”, we had Chinese speakers (N = 20) listen to sentences and we observed that they looked spontaneously within 150 ms after offset of the Sortal classifier. After about 200 ms the same occurred for the container classifiers, but with the default classifier only after about 700 ms. This looking pattern was absent in a control group of non-Chinese speakers and the Chinese speakers' gaze behavior can therefore only be ascribed to classifier semantics and not to artifacts of the visual objects. Thus, we found that classifier types affect the rapidity of spontaneously looking at the target objects on a screen. These significantly different latencies indicate that the stronger the semantic relatedness between a classifier and its noun, the more efficient the deployment of overt attention.

Numeral classifiers in the Austronesian languages of Taiwan

Abstract This paper is a typological exploration of the nominal classification systems found in the Austronesian languages of Taiwan, with special focus on their meanings, forms and functions within the Austronesian typological context. Based on Aikhenvald’s defining properties and classifications of classifiers (2000, 2017, 2019, 2021, forthcoming), the Austronesian languages of Taiwan investigated in this study display a set of relatively small classifier systems consisting of numeral classifiers and other classifier-like terms, such as measure words and verbal action classifiers. Numeral classifiers can be free or bound morphemes. The choice of a numeral classifier is based on the semantic features of a noun referent, mostly involving ‘humanness’. Though not every referent has to be assigned to a numeral classifier, numeral classifiers always accompany numerals. In these languages, none of them have numeral classifiers without presupposing the presence of sortal classifiers.

Classifiers and the mass-count distinction in Uzbek

The paper argues for the existence of the (NP-level) mass-count distinction in Tashkent Uzbek, an obligatory classifier dialect. Evidence is provided based on the distribution and interpretation of modifiers, classifiers and quantificational suffixes of different types, as well as properties of flexible and object mass nouns. A formal analysis is further provided that treats classifiers as sensitive to the mass-count distinction but not uniformly serving as “individuators” of otherwise mass nouns. Sortal classifiers are argued to differ from mensural ones in that only the latter contribute a measure function.

Two plant-based numeral classifiers in Nuristani languages: grain and branch

AbstractThis study demonstrates that – contrary to common belief – classifiers occur in Nuristani languages even if their use is not obligatory. The detailed description of two numeral classifiers (grainandbranch) shows that Nuristani languages conform to the general pattern of grammaticalizing nouns referring to plants or their parts as classifiers. The Nuristani system of nominal number marking in the direct case appears to be in harmony with the tendency that overt number marking on nouns is not obligatory in languages that use numeral classifiers. The two cases examined here are both shape-based sortal classifiers: the classifiergrainoccurs with items conceived of as small, round objects, whilebranchis used with items or phenomena that involve the perceptual schema of splitting, diverging. The lexical origin of these classifiers is transparent, and the emergence of the classifier function appears to be an innovation native to Nuristani.

The Metaphorical Use of Body Parts in Forming Counting expressions: Evidence from Tāti Language Group

AbstractMathematics is a particularly important challenge for embodied approaches to cognition, as it is probably the most abstract domain of human knowledge. Humans use metaphors in all aspects of life. This paper studies the effects of human body parts on numerals, numeral systems, and mensural and sortal classifiers. The evidence for this paper comes from the Tāti language group, an endangered Iranian language of the Indo-European language family. The Tāti data shows these languages make use of base-10, base-20, and base-50 numeral systems, some of which are among the most common and earliest counting systems worldwide, while the last is unique and peculiar to the area. Body parts may also play an important role in forming mensural and sortal classifiers, as is the case in the Tāti language group.

A Tale of Two Classifier Sets: Aphasia Treatment for a Cantonese Speaker

ABSTRACT Background Word retrieval deficits are common concerns for persons with aphasia (PWA). Treatment approaches can be divided into two processes, namely phonological and semantic, based on models suggesting that word activation consists of activating the semantic representation and phonological form of the target word. The role of syntax, however, has received less attention in models of retrieval and in the treatment of word retrieval deficits. Aims This study investigated whether a fixed noun phrase can support word finding in a PWA. Chinese is a classifier language where a classifier is obligatory in the quantitative noun phrase. The language uses two types of prenominal classifiers: sortal (serves to count individual nouns) and mensural (serves to count the units of nouns) classifiers. Methods & Procedures A Cantonese Chinese speaking PWA (LCH) with marked word retrieval deficits participated in this 15 bi-weekly, 90-minute treatment sessions, which focused on use of classifier cues to aid naming on confrontation naming. Twelve classifiers (6 sortal and 6 mensural) were selected to train target nouns. Target nouns were selected to pair with selected classifiers. Responses to cues were collected during each treatment session, documenting changes over time. Outcomes & Results Leveraging the relationship between target nouns and obligatory prenominal classifiers resulted in the participant’s improved picture naming for trained nouns as well as generalization to select untrained nouns. We report significant differences in the efficacy of sortal versus mensural classifiers to serve as primes for word retrieval. Sortal classifiers were significantly more effective than mensural classifiers, for both cueing trained and untrained target nouns. Conclusions For this speaker of a classifier language, use of classifiers served as viable cues for word retrieval and that sortal classifiers were more effective than mensural classifiers. Though word order does not distinguish between these two types of classifiers, their relative priming efficiency can be observed at the deep structure level. Findings suggest that a morphosyntactic approach to address word retrieval in a Chinese speaker may be beneficial but that great care must be taken in the creation of treatment materials. These factors must be further explored with additional participants and with a wider range of classifiers.

Classifiers before numerals

Abstract Languages with sortal classifiers (clf) are distributed across the world, with a large concentration in East and South (east) Asia. Across the world’s classifier languages, few are attested which order classifiers before numerals in counted noun phrases (clf num). The Sino-Tibetan language family includes languages without sortal classifiers, languages with the more typical num clf order, as well as languages with clf num order. The latter group of languages are concentrated in Northeast India and neighboring regions. The Sino-Tibetan languages with clf num order do not fit under one genealogical node. The present hypothesis is that the classifiers arose through repetition of the counted noun, following which the order spread via contact. The clf num order appears to have arisen at least as early as the time of Proto-Bodo-Garo. However, we do not yet find cognate classifiers at a time depth beyond Proto-Bodo-Garo. A remaining mystery is why such a cross-linguistically rare morpheme order spread so easily within the Northeast India linguistic area.

The interplay between classifier choice and animacy in Mandarin-Chinese noun phrases: an ERP study

ABSTRACT Animacy is an important semantic assignment principle in both gender and numeral classifier systems. Linguistic research has shown that animacy is not a simple binary feature but represents a fine-grained taxonomy of different animacy levels. We used the classifier system of Mandarin Chinese, with classifiers varying in semantic constraint, to assess whether the referents’ degree of animacy influences the processing of classifier-noun pairs. ERP results show an effect of agreement mismatch only when the general classifier 个 gè is paired with nouns referring to higher animals (chimpanzee, lion). For these pairs, the sortal classifier 只 zhī has to be chosen. No such effect was observed for nouns that refer to intermediate-level and lower animals (octopus, earthworm), indicating that 个 gè does not constitute an agreement mismatch here. We also observed significant ERP effects indicating that speakers of Mandarin Chinese process the general classifier and the specific sortal classifiers differently.

The Diversity of Classifier Inventory in Mandarin Dialects: A Case Study of Baoding

Abstract Our study compares Standard Mandarin (the Beijing dialect used in spoken and written registers) with the Mandarin dialect of Baoding (one of the Mandarin dialects belonging to the Jì-lŭ Mandarin group, Hebei-Shandong). Standard Mandarin and Baoding are geographically and phylogenetically closely related, but they differ in terms of their classifier system, as Standard Mandarin resorts to a wide array of sortal classifiers whereas Baoding only uses one general classifier. We first provide a detailed analysis of the unconventional classifier system in Baoding. Then, we compare the lexical and discourse functions of sortal classifiers in Standard Mandarin and Baoding. We show that Standard Mandarin does present a certain level of convergence with its geographical neighbour Baoding. However, these varieties also display significant divergences, as several lexical and discourse functions typically associated with classifier systems cannot be fulfilled by the only classifier found in Boading.

Classifiers, partitions, and measurements: Exploring the syntax and semantics of sortal classifiers

In many languages, measure terms like item and kilo, as in two items of furniture and two kilos of rice, can be used either to partition the nominal denotation into countable units, or to measure a denotation without inducing a partition. These two types of measurements are associated with two different syntactic structures: a partition-structure where the measure term forms a constituent with the noun independent of the numeral, and a measure-structure where the measure term forms a constituent with the numeral. Some researchers have claimed that in classifier languages, sortal classifiers are (most often) used in a partition-structure—hence the classifier forms a constituent with the noun independent of the numeral. In contrast, non-sortal classifiers (i.e., measure classifiers) are often used in a measure-structure—the classifier forms a constituent with the numeral and this constituent modifies the noun. Contrary to these claims, we demonstrate that in Ch’ol (Mayan) all classifiers, sortal and non-sortal alike, are used in a measure-structure independent of the types of readings that are available with respect to the measure term. As a result, the correlation between partitioned meanings and partition-structures is not universal. We review several diagnostics that support this claim. These diagnostics can be used as a template to test the constituency structure in other classifier languages.

Grammatical Morphology in Aphasia: Evidence from Cantonese Classifiers

Grammatical Morphology in Aphasia: Evidence from Cantonese Classifiers

A Statistical Explanation of the Distribution of Sortal Classifiers in Languages of the World via Computational Classifiers

ABSTRACTPrevious studies demonstrate that morphosyntactic plural markers and the structure of numeral systems have individually strong predictive power with regard to the usage of sortal classifiers in languages. We use these two factors as explanatory variables to train the computational classifier of random forests and evaluate the accuracy of their predictive power when selecting the existence/absence of sortal classifiers as response variable. Our results show that these two factors result in an excellent discrimination performance of random forests, even when taking into account sortal classifiers as an areal feature. However, the correlation between morphosyntactic plural markers and multiplicative bases is weaker than the correlation between sortal classifiers and plural markers plus multiplicative bases. We are thus able to provide novel insights with regard to probabilistic universals on sortal classifiers, and suggest an innovative cross-disciplinary approach to test the effect of implicational universals with computational methods.

Insights on the Greenberg-Sanches-Slobin generalization: Quantitative typological data on classifiers and plural markers

AbstractThis paper offers quantitative typological data to investigate a revised version of the Greenberg-Sanches-Slobin generalization (GSSG), which states that (a) a language is unlikely to have both sortal classifiers and morphosyntactic plural markers, and (b) if a language does have both, then their use is in complementary distribution. Morphosyntactic plurals engage in grammatical agreement outside the noun phrase, while morphosemantic plurals that relate to collective and associative marking do not. A database of 400 phylogenetically and geographically weighted languages was created to test this generalization. The statistical test of conditional inference trees was applied to investigate the effect of areal, phylogenetic, and linguistic factors on the distribution of classifiers and morphosyntactic plural markers. The results show that the presence of classifiers is affected by areal factors as most classifier languages are concentrated in Asia. Yet, the low ratio of languages with both features simultaneously is still statistically significant. Part (a) of the GSSG can thus be seen as a statistical universal. We then look into the few languages that do have both features and tentatively conclude that part (b) also seems to hold but further investigation into some of these languages is needed.

Do classifiers make the syntactic count/mass distinction? Insights from ERPs in classifier processing in Japanese

Abstract It has long been assumed that classifier languages lack syntactic distinctions of objects and substances (i.e., count/mass distinction; Allan, 1977; Chierchia, 1998; Krifka, 1995; Lucy, 1992; Quine, 1969). Several linguists, however, claimed that classifier languages also make the syntactic count/mass distinction through the selective use of count classifiers (i.e., sortal classifiers) and mass classifiers (e.g., Cheng & Sybesma, 1998, 1999). The present study examined whether Japanese speakers make a syntactic count/mass distinction using the classifier system. The electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded while Japanese speakers read word pairs (Experiment 1) or sentences (Experiment 2) in which noun–classifier agreement relations were manipulated. We examined event-related potentials (ERPs) elicited by the within-count/mass-category violation (e.g., an object name accompanied by a classifier for other objects) and the across-count/mass-category violation (e.g., an object name accompanied by a classifier for substances). In both experiments, the violation of the noun–classifier agreements elicited the N400, regardless of whether the noun–classifier disagreement was made within or across the ontological object/substance boundary. The across-count/mass-category violation did not recruit a syntactic process in the brain, suggesting that the Japanese classifier system does not highlight the distinction between objects and substances. The results also indicated that the processing of Japanese numeral classifiers is primarily semantic-based.

Numeral Classifiers in Ersu

This paper analyzes the numeral classifier system in Ersu, a previously under-documented Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Sichuan Province, China. Ersu numeral classifiers obligatorily follow a numeral in the context of counting. The language has a rich set of numeral classifiers, including sortal classifiers, mensural classifiers, time classifiers and repeaters. Their functional range involves individualization, classification, referentialization and emphasis. The paper concludes that Ersu not only shares common features with other Tibeto-Burman languages in this area, but also has some unique typological characteristics.