Sorghum Beer Research Articles

IMPROVEMENT OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SORGHUM BEERS QUALITY AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF PLANTS EXTRACTS FOR THEIR STABILIZATION: A REVIEW

In Africa, various kinds of traditional alcoholic beverages commonly named sorghum beers or opaque beers, have been recorded and described. These drinks have a central role in peoples' cultures and play fundamental socioeconomic function. Their brewing involves malting, mashing, souring, straining, boiling and two successive steps of fermentation which occur at ambient conditions. A primary lactic fermentation, or souring stage, confers the souring taste and storage longevity. The alcoholic fermentation is usually initiated by pitching wort with a portion of previous brew. The beverage thus obtained is unstable. Since the African sorghum beers fermentation process is run by uncontrolled inoculation under no standard hygienic conditions, producers have a major problem to make a good beer with a long shelf-life. In other hand, recently the disappearance of many active synthetic substances in foods protection has resulted to a renewed interest in naturally occurring substances. In parallel to these disappearances, the regulatory environment incites strongly to increase the use of alternative methods to chemical control. This review aims to summarize works about African traditional sorghum beers stabilization and potential applications of plants extract for their natural preservatives.

English

Mycotoxins are natural metabolites produced by fungi that can cause disease and death in human and animals alike, even in low concentrations. More than thirty mycotoxins that contaminate sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and its derived products are known. This work aimed to investigate the presence of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in sorghum malt and beer, sampled between January and April 2012 in Ouagadougou. Mycotoxins in fifty samples of sorghum beer and twenty samples of sorghum malts have been purified using immunoaffinity columns, and later identified and quantified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A were no found in any of the sorghum beer samples. However, 25% of the sorghum malt samples contained aflatoxin B1 with an average of 97.6 ± 88.2 ppb (p < 0.05), while none contained ochratoxin A above the level of 0.8 ppb (ochratoxin A limit of detection). From the samples collected in this study, consumption of sorghum beer seems to be safe concerning contamination in aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A but a dietary assessment of exposure should be conducted.   Key words: Aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, sorghum beer, sorghum malt, HPLC. &nbsp

Production of freeze-dried yeast culture for the brewing of traditional sorghum beer, tchapalo.

Freeze-drying is a well-known dehydration method widely used to preserve microorganisms. In order to produce freeze-dried yeast starter culture for the brewing purpose of African sorghum beer, we tested protective agents (sucrose, glucose, glycerol) in combination with support materials (millet, maize, sorghum, and cassava flours) at 1:1 ratio (v/v). The yeast strains Saccharomyces cerevisiae F 12-7 and Candida tropicalis C 0-7 previously isolated from sorghum beer were used in a mixed culture at a ratio of 2:1 (C.tropicalis/S.cerevisiae). After the freeze-drying, the residual water contents were between 0.78 -2.27%, 0.55 -4.09%, and 0.40-2.61%, respectively, with sucrose, glucose and glycerol. The dried yeasts viabilities were between 4.0% and 10.6%. Among the protective agents used, sucrose was found to be the best protectant giving cell viabilities of 8.4-10.6%. Considering the support materials, millet flour was the best support after drying. When the freeze-dried yeast powders were stored at 4°C and room temperature (25-28°C) for up to 3months, the survival rates were the highest with cassava flour as the support material.

Diversity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from Borassus akeassii palm wines from Burkina Faso in comparison to other African beverages

In South-West of Burkina Faso, palm wine is produced by spontaneous fermentation of the sap from a specific palm tree Borassus akeassii and plays an important role in people's lives. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the main agent of this alcoholic fermentation but little is known about the diversity of the isolates from palm. In this work, 39 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains were isolated from palm wine samples collected from 14 sites in Burkina Faso, as well as 7 isolates obtained from sorghum beer (Dolo) from 3 distant sites. Their diversity was analyzed at 12 microsatellite loci, and compared to the genotypes obtained for other African yeast populations isolated from Cocoa hulks from Ghana, sorghum beer from Ivory Coast, palm wine from Djibouti Republic, and to our database of strains from miscellaneous origins (bread, beer, wine, sake, oaks…). The ploidy of these strains has been assessed as well by flow cytometry. Our results show that B. akeassii palm wine contains a specific yeast population of diploid strains, different from Dolo produced in the same area and from other palm wine strains from Ivory Coast, Nigeria, or Djibouti Republic. In contrast, Dolo strains appeared as a group of related and mainly tetraploid strains despite being isolated from different countries.

English

Opaque sorghum beers are the most consumed African alcoholic beverages. Tchoukoutou is one of the Benin opaque sorghum beers. Its fermentation process is carried out using a traditional starter called kpete-kpete. The present study characterized and identified the yeasts isolated from kpete-kpete. A total of 24 samples of kpete-kpete were collected from eight different commercial processing sites in Northern Benin. The mean values of the pH, titrable acidity, dry matter content and refractive index for all samples were respectively 3.58; 0.07% as lactic acid; 16.61% and 7.0. The mean counts of yeasts was 9.24 log cfu/ml. Based on their phenotypic characters and their assimilation profiles, 49 yeasts were isolated and found to belong to five genera with seven species. Seventy one percent (71%) of the isolates were identified as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Key words: Sorghum beer, tchoukoutou, kpete-kpete, yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Sorghum Beer Brewing Using Eleusine coracana “Finger Millet” to Improve the Saccharification

Sorghum Beer Brewing Using Eleusine coracana “Finger Millet” to Improve the Saccharification

Detection and Quantification of Gluten during the Brewing and Fermentation of Beer Using Antibody-Based Technologies

In 2013 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defined the term “gluten-free” and identified a gap in the analytical methodology for detection and quantification of gluten in foods subjected to fermentation and hydrolysis. To ascertain the ability of current enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to detect and quantify gluten in fermented and hydrolyzed products, sorghum beer was spiked in the initial phases of production with 0, 20, and 200 μg/ml wheat gluten, and samples were collected throughout the beer production process. The samples were analyzed using five sandwich ELISAs and two competitive ELISAs and by sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with Western analysis employing four antibodies (MIoBS, R5, G12, and Skerritt). The sensitivity of the MIoBS ELISA (0.25 ppm) enabled the reliable detection of gluten throughout the manufacturing process, including fermentation, when the initial concentration of 20 μg/ml dropped to 2 μg/ml. The R5 antibody–based and G12 antibody–based sandwich ELISAs were unable to reliably detect gluten, initially at 20 μg/ml, after the onset of production. The Skerritt antibody–based sandwich ELISA overestimated the gluten concentration in all samples. The R5 antibody–based and G12 antibody–based competitive ELISAs were less sensitive than the sandwich ELISAs and did not provide accurate results for quantifying gluten concentration. The Western analyses were able to detect gluten at less than 5 μg/ml in the samples and confirmed the results of the ELISAs. Although further research is necessary before all problems associated with detection and quantification of hydrolyzed and fermented gluten are resolved, the analytical methods recommended by the FDA for regulatory samples can detect ≥20 μg/ml gluten that has undergone brewing and fermentation processes associated with the manufacture of beer.

Indigenous knowledge associated with the production of starters culture used to produce Beninese opaque sorghum beers

Objective : The present study aims to document the indigenous Knowledge associated with the production of starters culture to be used for opaque sorghum beers manufacturing in Benin Methodology and results : A quantitative survey was carried out in the central and the northern regions of Benin. A total of ninety (90) processors of traditional beers were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The collected information was related to the processing method of the starters’ production, its shelf life as well as sociodemographic data on the producers. Five types of starters were identified during this investigation. Apart from the beer itself which can be used as starter, we can distinguish kpete-kpete; the fermentation calabash, the bag and the belt of fermentation. Among them, the fermentation calabash was mostly used by 74% (67/90) of beer producers followed by kpete-kpete 21% (19/90). In some cases, these starters were used in association with each other to speed up the fermentation process. All the producers were women with an average age of 38 years old. Among those women, about 73% (66/90) produce and sell the beer as principal activity. According to 56% (51/90) of the producers, the quality of the manufactured beer depends on the quality of the starter used. Many other factors such as the sorghum variety, the brewing technique can also affect the beer quality. It is reported by 70% (63/90) of producers that the storage duration reduces the fermentative ability of kpete-kpete. Some health-related properties such as the treatment of diarrhoea have been attributed to kpete-kpete by 73% (66/90) of the producers interviewed. Conclusion and application of results : the fermentation calabash is the most used starter by traditional beer producers because of the quality of the derived beer. The kpete-kpete comes in the second position but possesses the advantage of being used by people to cure humans and animals diseases. Further investigations are needed to identify the functional microorganisms involved in the kpete-kpete to better understanding its health-related attributes. Keywords : Indigenous Knowledge, tchoukoutou, kpete-kpete, fermentation, Benin.

Economic Analysis of A Fuelwood Consuming Activity: Empirical Evidence for Traditional Red Sorghum Beer Producers in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

This paper aims to analyze the determinants of input demand for local red sorghum beer production in Ouagadougou, which is an activity conducted mainly by women from these areas. The descriptive analysis in the paper emphasizes on the extent of this activity in the national economy, and namely in firewood consumption. The producer theory approach through an econometrical method using a cost translog function also helps to derive conditional input demand namely for firewood. The estimated coefficients of firewood conditional demand of local beer producers, ‘‘dolotières’’, have shown weak price elasticity hampering the fuelwood price policy. However, the simulation regarding taxation of fuelwood price effect on quantity demanded consequently states an overall reduction in demand for fuelwood in Ouagadougou. This induces a decrease in the local beer producer’s profit for a given level of production. In addition, the paper deals with short term analyses.

Impact of Technological Diagram on Biochemical and Microbiological Quality of <i>Borassus akeassii </i>Wine Produced Traditionally in Burkina Faso

Palm wines are produced following several traditional processes, very consumed and appreciated in West Africa. In South-West of Burkina Faso<i>, Borassus akeassii</i> palm wine, plays a nutritional and socio-economic role and replaces Sorghum beer. Because of reported health issues due to the bad practices of palm wine tappers, we performed survey aimed to assess the impact of technological diagrams on the quality of this wine in order to improve its quality. In South-West of Burkina Faso, survey was undertaken among tappers, vendors and consumers of<i> </i>palm wine, followed by microbiological and biochemical analysis. Questioning of 88 tappers, 80 vendors and 155 consumers by using cards of survey, revealed that 3 critical points were very important for improvement of wine quality. It is washing of flask used for collection with, filtration without dilution of palm wine and washing of conditioning containers. According their practices, tappers were divided into two sub-groups: Sub-groups 1 and 2. Biochemical analysis of palm wines revealed differences between the two sub-groups’ processes for acidity 0.64±0.08 versus 0.82±0.29% (m/v), pH 4.90±0.10 versus 4.05±0.61 and alcohol content 5.80 ± 2.13 versus 4.7±1.47% (v/v) for sub-groups1 and 2 respectively. Microbiological investigations show that total and thermo-tolerant coliforms and <i>Staphylococcus</i> <i>aureus</i> were also detected in wine of sub-group 2 and were 5.46±1.34, 3.15±1.90 and 6.40±1.23 log cfu/ml respectively but not detected in sub-group 1 wine. Our study shows that wine quality could be significantly improved by using undiluted sap and controlling the three critical points of main diagram.

English

Sorghum beer is a significant diet component of millions of poor rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa. In this study, we identified and biochemically characterized yeast strains isolated from otche, a traditional starter used in fermentation of chakpalo, an opaque sorghum beer in Benin. 12 samples of otche were collected from 12 different commercial processing sites. The mean values of pH, titratable acidity, dry matter content and refractive index of the starters analyzed were 3.37, 0.17 (% as lactic acid), 7.15 and 7.0%, respectively. The mean yeast count per sample was 8.72 log cfu/ml. Based on phenotypical and biochemical characterization (carbon and nitrogen assimilation) profile, 50 yeast strains were identified and found to belong to five genera and ten species. Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found to be the most predominant yeasts species of otche. Key words: Sorghum, beer, chakpalo, otche, yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Fermentation profile of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida tropicalis as starter cultures on barley malt medium.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae C8-5 and Candida tropicalis F0-5 isolated from traditional sorghum beer were tested for kinetic parameters on barley malt extract, YPD (863 medium) and for alcohol production. The results showed that C. tropicalis has the highest maximum growth rate and the lowest doubling time. Values were 0.22 and 0.32h(-1) for maximum growth rate, 3h 09min and 2h 09min for doubling time respectively on barley malt extract and YPD. On contrary, glucose consumption was the fastest with S. cerevisiae (-0.36 and -0.722g/l/h respectively on barley malt extract and YPD). When these two yeasts were used as starters in pure culture and co-culture at proportion of 1:1 and 2:1 (cell/cell) for barley malt extract fermentation, we noticed that maltose content increased first from 12.12g/l to 13.62-16.46g/l and then decreased. The highest increase was obtained with starter C. tropicalis + S. cerevisiae 2:1. On contrary, glucose content decreased throughout all the fermentation process. For all the starters used, the major part of the ethanol was produced at 16h of fermentation. Values obtained in the final beers were 11.4, 11.6, 10.4 and 10.9g/l for fermentation conducted with S. cerevisiae, C. tropicalis, C. tropicalis + S. cerevisiae 1:1 and C. tropicalis + S. cerevisiae 2:1. Cell viability measurement during the fermentation by using flow cytometry revealed that the lowest mean channel fluorescence for FL3 (yeast rate of death) was obtained with C. tropicalis + S. cerevisiae 2:1 after 48h of fermentation.

Caregivers' knowledge and use of fermented foods for infant and young children feeding in a rural community of odi, gauteng province, South Africa.

Fermented foods have positive health effects in adults and children if consumed regularly. However, lack of knowledge and perceptions to-wards fermented foods may limit their usage. This study aimed to assess the caregivers' awareness and usage of fermented foods for feeding children in peri-urban/rural communities of Gauteng Province. A qualitative exploratory study was conducted in June, 2012, in a peri-urban/rural community to assess the awareness and use of fermented foods by child caregivers attending a local antenatal clinic through focus group discussions. Thirty three caregivers participated in the study; however 29 indicated their demographic profiles. Four major themes that emerged from the analysis included knowledge on fermented foods, perceived benefits of fermentation, varied views about fermentation and feeding practices. Fermented foods that caregivers, their families and community members consume include ting, fat cakes, dumplings, sorghum beer and mageu. Findings also showed that children consumed fermented foods in form of soft ting porridge; and yoghurt, marketed as Activia and Danone commercial brands. Also, caregivers were not comfortable feeding their children with fermented foods, indicating their limited knowledge on the nutri-tional value of these foods. It is critical to promote caregivers' knowledge and use of fermented foods for feeding infants and young children in South African rural communities.

Biochemical characterization and growth patterns of new yeast isolates.

African sorghum opaque beers play a vital role in the diet of millions of consumers. In the current study we investigated the growth profiles of yeast strains isolated from kpete-kpete, a traditional starter used to produce tchoukoutou, an opaque sorghum beer in Benin. 10 yeast strains were isolated from sorghum beer starters and cultivated under both liquid and solid media for phenotypic growth characterization. All yeast isolates were able to grow both on solid and liquid media. Based on their growth profiles, the isolates were clustered into three groups: (i) the aggressive growth pattern (30%), (ii) the moderate growth pattern (50%), and (iii) the slow growth pattern (20%). Based on gene expression pattern, absorbance (A(600 nm)) and diameter of growth in both liquid and solid media respectively, yeast strains YK34, YK15 and YK48 were clustered in the first group, and referred to as the most aggressive growth strains, followed by group 2 (YK24, YK5, YK12, YK20, YK2) and group 3 (YK37, YK41). This growth pattern was confirmed by Invertase gene expression profiling of the yeasts showing group 1 with high level of Invertase gene expression followed by group 2 and group 3 respectively. Our results suggest that YK34, YK15 and YK48 and YK2 yeast strains constitute the best candidates in fermentation of sorghum beer production based on growth rate and assimilation of carbon and nitrogen sources.

Multitoxin analysis of Aspergillus clavatus-infected feed samples implicated in two outbreaks of neuromycotoxicosis in cattle in South Africa.

Aspergillus clavatus intoxication is a highly fatal neuromycotoxicosis of ruminants, especially cattle. It is caused by the ingestion of infected sprouting grain and sorghum beer residue. Locomotor disturbances, tremors and paralysis are observed. Histologically, degeneration and necrosis of larger neurons in the medulla oblongata, the midbrain, the thalamus and the ventral horns of the spinal cord are observed. Although a range of mycotoxins such as patulin, cytochalasin E and pseurotin A have been isolated, there is limited information on which specific mycotoxin or group of mycotoxins are involved during outbreaks of intoxication in livestock. In the present study, two outbreaks of A. clavatus poisoning in cattle are briefly described. Feed samples were collected for fungal identification, and culture and multitoxin analysis. A range of fungal metabolites were detected, and the estimated concentrations (μg/kg) are provided. Both the sprouting barley and brewer's grain were predominantly infected with A. clavatus and, to a lesser extent, Rhizopus arrhizus. The only common Aspergillus secondary metabolite present in all the samples was pseurotin A. Patulin and cytochalasin E were present in the sprouting barley samples, as well as the A. clavatus isolates cultured on malt extract agar for 2 weeks; however, neither of these mycotoxins could be detected in the brewer's grain sample.

Production of Traditional Sorghum Beer “&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Ikigage&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;” Using &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Saccharomyces cerevisae&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;,&amp;lt;i&amp;gt; Lactobacillus fermentum&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; and&amp;lt;i&amp;gt; Issatckenkia orientalis&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; as Starter Cultures

This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of the use of predominant yeast strains (Sacharomyces cerevisiae and Issatkenkia orientalis) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus fermentum) of Rwandese traditional sorghum beer “ikigage” as starter cultures to improve ikigage beer. The results show that L. fermentum has an influence on taste sour of ikigage beer and contributes also to generating ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate and higher alcohols such as 3-methylbutan-1-ol, 2-me- thylbutan-1-ol and 2-methylpropan-1-ol of this beer. I. orientalis contributed to the production of ethyl butyrate, ethyl caprylate, isobutyl butyrate and their corresponding acids, and to the generation of phenyl alcohols in ikigage beer. The association of S. cerevisiae with I. orientalis and L. fermentum produced ikigage beer with taste, aroma and mouth feel more similar to ikigage beers brewed locally by peasants. It is recommended to use S. cerevisiae in association with L. fermentum and I. orientalis as stater cultures to produce ikigage beer having the uniform organoleptic characteristics and a high ethanol content. This method also reduces the risk of contamination of the brew with food sanitary indicator and pathogenic microorganisms and will increase the chance of preservation of ikigage beer.

Influence of Some Process Parameters on Defined Characteristics of Sorghum Beer during Very High Gravity Fermentation

This study was carried out to investigate the influence of some process parameters on defined characteristics of sorghum beer during very high gravity fermentation. The yeast (Saccharomyces uvarum)was pitched in very High Gravity Wort from two varieties (red and white) of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Changes in some process parameters like pH, specific gravity, percentage alcohol by volume, free amino nitrogen, total reducing sugar, total nitrogen and total protein were investigated over a period of 5 days of fermentation. Results showed that pH values decreased as fermentation proceeded with increased total acidity while alcohol contents of the fermenting wort increased from the first day to the fifth day of fermentation. There were observed decrease in specific gravity, total reducing sugar, free amino nitrogen (FAN), Percentage total nitrogen and Percentage total protein from first day to the fifth day of fermentation. The red sorghum had a lower pH, higher specific gravity and alcohol content than the white sorghum. This showed that Saccharomyces uvarum can grow well in very high gravity sorghum wort and pH, specific gravity, free alpha amino nitrogen is an important aspect of the wort for yeast fermentation.

Partial Characterization of Bacteriocins from Two &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Pediococcus acidilactici&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; Strains Isolated during Traditional Sorghum Beer Processing in C&amp;#244;te d’Ivoire

Two lactic acid bacteria strains (At1BEAE22 and At344E21) isolated during tchapalo production were identified on the basis of phenotypic analyses. Bacteriocins produced by these strains were tested for their antimicrobial activities using well diffusion agar method. Heat resistance, pH sensitivity and enzyme treatments were also analyzed. Results showed that both lactic acid bacteria strains were identified as Pediococcus acidilactici. Their bacteriocins inhibited growth of Lactobacillus delbrueckii F/31, Listeria innocua ATCC 33090, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Streptococcus sp, Enterococcus faecalis CIP 105042 and Enterococcus faecium ATCC 51558. These bacteriocins were heat stable at 60&degC for 30 min for all indicator bacteria. However, they remained active only against Lactobacillus delbrueckii and Listeria innocua at 121&degC for 60 min. Moreover, they were active in a wide range of pH (3 to 9) with a maximum activity observed at pH 5 and 6 on all indicator bacteria. But, bacteriocin from Pediococcus acidilactici At34E21 was more stable at acidic pH than basic one. The fact that the bacteriocin was inactivated by proteinase K and α-chymotrypsin indicated its proteinaceous nature, a general characteristics of bacteriocins.

Impact of Unmalted White Nigerian and Red Italian Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor) on the Quality of Worts and Beers Applying Optimized Enzyme Levels

Brewing with sorghum adjunct is well established in many countries, such as Nigeria. However, no brewing-related publications based on the use of unmalted sorghum grown in Europe are available to date. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine and compare the impact of 40% white Nigerian and red Italian sorghum on wort and beer quality adding optimized levels of exogenous enzymes. Brewing with sorghum adjunct was carried out in a 60-L pilot plant applying a double infusion mashing process. Worts and beers were analyzed with regard to processability, flavor and sensory characteristics, foam stability, shelf life, and gluten content (competitive ELISA). The substitution of 40% barley malt with white or red sorghum caused significant increases in wort pH as well as significant decreases in wort viscosity (calculated to 12.0% w/w extract), TSN, FAN, and total amino acids. Worts produced with 40% red sorghum contained higher levels of total polyphenols and total fermentable sugars than those produced with 40% white sorghum. Beers brewed with 40% unmalted sorghum exhibited significantly lower foam stabilities compared with 100% barley malt beers. However, white sorghum had a considerably less adverse impact on beer foam than red sorghum. The sensory analysis performed according to the Deutsche Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft e.V. (DLG) scheme revealed no significant differences between 40% sorghum and 100% barley malt beers. Furthermore, the gluten content of beers was significantly reduced by replacing 40% barley malt with sorghum adjuncts. According to the Codex Alimentarius, red sorghum beer could even be labeled as a “very low gluten” beverage.

Production of Lager Beers from Different Types of Sorghum Malts and Adjuncts Supplemented with β-Amylase or Amyloglucosidase

Sorghum has been used in lager beer production as a source of malt and brewing adjuncts and it is viewed as an excellent choice for the production of gluten-free beers. In this research, lager beers produced from white or red sorghum malts, waxy or regular sorghum adjuncts, and β-amylase or amyloglucosidase supplementation were evaluated and compared with a control beer produced from barley malt. Worts were produced by a double-mashing procedure and brewed by typical lager fermentation. The addition of β-amylase increased the amount of fermentable sugars in the sorghum malt worts. When amyloglucosidase was added, the total sugar content was augmented 20% and the glucose content was five times higher compared with worts without exogenous enzymes. Barley and sorghum malt worts contained adequate amounts of free amino nitrogen contents. After fermentation, the barley malt beers contained approximately 1% more ethanol compared with the sorghum malt counterparts that were not supplemented with exogenous amylolytic enzymes. In beers supplemented with amyloglucosidase, the ethanol augmented 1.1% units and contents were comparable independently of the sort of malt. Fusel alcohol concentrations did not differ among treatments. The higher yields of 100% gluten-free sorghum beers were achieved when worts were supplemented with amyloglucosidase during mashing.