Song Components Research Articles

Effects of intention in the imitation of sung and spoken pitch.

Pitch content is an important component of song and speech. Previous studies have shown a pronounced advantage for imitation of sung pitch over spoken pitch. However, it is not clear to what extent matching of pitch in production depends on one's intention to imitate pitch. We measured the effects of intention to imitate on matching of produced pitch in both vocal domains. Participants imitated pitch content in speech and song stimuli intentionally ("imitate the pitch") and incidentally ("repeat the words"). Our results suggest that the song advantage exists independently of whether participants explicitly intend to imitate pitch. This result supports the notion that the song advantage reflects pitch salience in the stimulus. On the other hand, participants were more effective at suppressing the imitation of pitch for song than for speech. This second result suggests that it is easier to dissociate phonetic content from pitch in the context of song than in speech. Analyses of individual differences showed that intention to imitate pitch had larger effects for individuals who tended to match pitch overall in production, independent of intentions. Taken together, the results help to illuminate the psychological processes underlying intentional and automatic vocal imitation processes.

Developmental differences in the hemodynamic response to changes in lyrics and melodies by 4- and 12-month-old infants

Songs and speech play central roles in early caretaker–infant communicative interactions, which are crucial for infants' cognitive, social, and emotional development. Compared to speech development, however, much less is known about how infants process songs or how songs affect their development. Lyrics and melody are two key components of songs, and much of the research on song processing has examined how the two components of the songs are processed. The current study focused on the roles of lyrics and melody in song perception, by examining developmental patterns and the ways in which lyrics and melody are processed in the infants' brains using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). The results revealed that developmental changes occur in infants' processing of lyrics and melody in a similar timeline as perceptual reorganization, that is, from 4.5 and 12 months of age. We found that 4.5-month-olds showed a right hemispheric advantage in the processing of songs that underwent a change in either lyrics or melodies. Conversely, 12-month-olds showed significantly higher activation bilaterally when lyrics and melody changed at the same time. These results suggest that 4.5-month-olds processed songs in the same manner as music without lyrics. Moreover, 12-month-olds processed lyrics and melody in an interactive manner, a sign of a more mature processing method. These findings highlight the importance of investigating the independent development of music and language, and also considering the relationship between speech and song, lyrics and melody in song, and speech and music more broadly.

Normalising sexualised violence in popular culture: eroding, erasing and controlling women in rock music

ABSTRACT How does music play a role in normalising men’s sexual violence towards women? Using mainstream rock and metal music as an illustrative case study, we offer a nuanced account of the ways in which men’s sexual violence is normalised. Using a definition of sexual violence drawn from Liz Kelly’s notion of a continuum, which reframes sexual violence as the loss of women’s ability to control sexual experiences, we explore the ways in which sexual violence is a prevalent lyrical and audio-visual component of rock and metal songs. We show that a pernicious theme of rock and metal over the last 25 years is the erosion of women’s ability to refuse sexual activity and to have voice and be heard. We argue that this erosion of women’s consent takes place through the representational use of emotional abuse, controlling/coercive behaviour, and through the objectification of women. The erasure of consent presented through these methods becomes a key means of establishing sexual control. Through manipulation, the confusion of what counts as sexual violence and how it is defined, men’s sexual violence against women is normalised.

Appreciating vulgarity in raw Zimdancehall music as expression of truth

ABSTRACT While there are refined creations, vulgarised Zimdancehall has been a subject of academic, political and cultural concern. It is widely disparaged as abominable and culturally subversive music. However, vulgar lingo has always been a functional and ornamental component of speech and song in specific contexts of the Shona cultural community. Deploying the aesthetics of vulgarity thesis, this article appreciates the place of raw Zimdancehall in today’s society and its representation of the socio-political realities of life. The genre represents a discursive space for artists to expose, interrogate and demystify the hidden dimensions of individuals and societal experiences, perceptions, fallacies, fantasies and aspirations that are often overlooked and avoided by mainstream musicians through the use of nonconformist discourse. This illustrates the reincarnation of traditional art and spaces where vulgar served to create humour, expose, contest and critique existing socio-political veracities in the society. We contend that the criminalization of vulgarised Zimdancehall is a culturally uninformed legally supported verdict that disregards the traditional functions and place of vulgarised performances. The misconduct is not in the composition and production of the music, but in individuals who play the music in wrong contexts without discerning the content.

Differential geographic patterns in song components of male Albert's lyrebirds.

Geographic variation in bird song has received much attention in evolutionary studies, yet few consider components within songs that may be subject to different constraints and follow different evolutionary trajectories. Here, we quantify patterns of geographic variation in the socially transmitted “whistle” song of Albert's lyrebirds (Menura alberti), an oscine passerine renowned for its remarkable vocal abilities. Albert's lyrebirds are confined to narrow stretches of suitable habitat in Australia, allowing us to map likely paths of cultural transmission using a species distribution model and least cost paths. We use quantitative methods to divide the songs into three components present in all study populations: the introductory elements, the song body, and the final element. We compare geographic separation between populations with variation in these components as well as the full song. All populations were distinguishable by song, and songs varied according to the geographic distance between populations. However, within songs, only the introductory elements and song body could be used to distinguish among populations. The song body and final element changed with distance, but the introductory elements varied independently of geographic separation. These differing geographic patterns of within‐song variation are unexpected, given that the whistle song components are always produced in the same sequence and may be perceived as a temporally discrete unit. Knowledge of such spatial patterns of within‐song variation enables further work to determine possible selective pressures and constraints acting on each song component and provides spatially explicit targets for preserving cultural diversity. As such, our study highlights the importance for science and conservation of investigating spatial patterns within seemingly discrete behavioral traits at multiple levels of organization.

MUSICAL FOLKLORE OF SIBERIAN UDMURTS IN SOUND COLLECTIONS OF THE UDMURT INSTITUTE OF HISTORY, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF THE UDMFRC UB RAS

The article considers archival sound collections according to the musical and song tradition of the Siberian group of Udmurts living in the Krasnoyarsk region and the Tomsk region. The main stock repository today is the phonogrammarchiv of the Udmurt Institute of History, Language and Literature of the UdmFRC UB RAS. Expeditionary recordings made in 1974 and 2006 make it possible to trace the state of musical folklore in dynamics. Analysis of the field material showed a decrease in the number of songs and the complete disappearance of rites in late recordings, while the layer of non-ritual songs survived quite well. The same phenomenon (partial disappearance of the rite layer of songs and the prevalence of the non-ritual) we see in the Udmurt traditional culture. In our opinion, this is facilitated by the emotional component of non-ritual songs, which is relevant at all times. During the course of the work, new materials stored in other funds were identified and will be considered in subsequent studies. The further planned comparative analysis of musical folklore of the Udmurt resettlement tradition with autochthonous tradition will allow relating the degree of preservation and/or loss of its components.

Dance and Socio-Cybernetics: The Dance event of “K’na” As A Shaping Component of The Cultural Identity Amongst the Arvanites of Neo Cheimonio Evros, Greece

The research field of this paper is the wedding dance event of “K’na”, as this takes place by the Arvanites of Greek Thrace, an ethnic group moved to the area from Turkish Thrace in 1923. The aim of this paper is to investigate whether the three components of dance, music and song of Greek traditional dance, as these reflected in the “K’na” dance event amongst the Arvanites ethnic group of Neo Cheimonio (Evros), are related to issues of ethno-cultural identity under the lens of socio-cybernetics. Data was gathered through ethnographic method as this is applied to the study of dance, while its interpretation was based on socio-cybernetics according to Burke’s identity control theory. From the data analysis, it is showed that through the “K’na” dance event the Thracian Arvanites of Neo Cheimonio shape and reshape their ethno-cultural identity as a reaction to the input they receive from their environment. Therefore, the “construction” of their identity, as a constant process of self-regulation and internal control, is subjected to the conditions of a cybernetic process.

Black-capped Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) can identify individual females by their fee-bee songs

Abstract Individual recognition is a social behavior that occurs in many bird species. A bird’s ability to discriminate among familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics is critical to avoid wasting resources such as time and energy during social interactions. Black-capped Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) are able to discriminate individual female and male chick-a-dee calls, potentially male and female tseet calls, and male fee-bee songs. In the current study, we used an operant discrimination go/no-go paradigm to determine whether female and male chickadees could discriminate between fee-bee songs produced by individual female chickadees as well as test which song component(s) enable this discrimination. Birds trained on natural categories—the songs of different females—learned to respond to rewarded stimuli more quickly than birds trained on random groupings of female songs and were able to transfer this learning to new songs from the same categories. Chickadees were also able to generalize their responding when exposed to the bee note of the fee-bee song of rewarded individuals; they did not generalize to fee notes. Our results provide evidence that Black-capped Chickadees can use female-produced fee-bee songs for individual recognition. However, the acoustic features underlying individual recognition require further investigation.

Vocal stylistics in rock music: dialectics of general and special

Vocal stylistics in rock music: dialectics of general and special

Singing in South Africa: monitoring the occurrence of humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song near the Western Cape

ABSTRACT Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are highly vocal, producing a wide repertoire of sounds often organised into song. Song is prolific at breeding sites but also documented along migration routes and at feeding sites, including along the west coast of South Africa (28°–34°S). Here we examine the occurrence of humpback whale song within False Bay, South Africa, using intermittent recording periods from moored hydrophones spanning September 2016 to January 2018. Recordings from four locations were scrutinised for humpback whale vocalisations using long-term spectral averages (LTSAs). In total, 7205 h were examined, with song identified in 3% (211 h) of recording hours. Song was exclusively documented in September and October 2016 and was more prevalent at the most westerly sites. Diel patterns of song presence were modelled, showing the likelihood of detection was higher in the early morning and late evening (GAM: p < 0.05). On 15 occasions, two or more singers were detected with temporally overlapping song components. These results indicate prevalent, albeit seasonal, song production by humpback whales off the coast of South Africa and highlight the utility of passive acoustic monitoring to indicate their presence, behaviour, and potential population linkages in the region.

Technogenic Noise Affects the Minimum Frequency of Chaffinch Song Components (Fringilla coelebs) in the Moscow Population

To test the hypothesis that birds shift song parameters to higher frequencies in response to continuous low-frequency noise, we received records of vocalizations from 78 male chaffinchs in Moscow city parks. The levels of noise were recorded for each recording point. Based on phonograms, we measured the minimum frequency of four phrases in three common songs types in Moscow. Measurements of each phrase were made in 18–21 males with measurement of four songs of a given type in each male, which were randomly selected from a phonogram. The minimum frequency in the vocalizations of various males varied from 4.94 to 5.22 kHz for phrase 1, from 2.23 to 2.6 kHz for phrase 2, from 1.77 to 2.64 kHz for phrase 3, and from 2.08 to 2.42 kHz for phrase 4. A significant positive correlation (the Pearson correlation coefficient, 0.67 < r < 0.79) of the minimum frequency with the noise level was revealed for three out of the four phrases studied. A sharp increase in the minimum frequency of singing with increased noise was revealed at a noise level of 55 dB and above.

Variance in Belarusian rites spring dance songs “Oj, nie rasci, kropie”

The article is devoted to the study of variation of Belarusian calendar ceremonial songs on the example of ancient spring songs-dances “Oj, nie rasci, kropie”. In different embodiments it exists up to the present in the local traditions and at Belarus Polessye performed on Velikden valachobny. We analyzed a number of tunes and texts of songs recorded in different regions of Belarus in the second half of the twentieth century. As the result of options comparison some features and regularities of its existence, of different local styles and traditions were found, a number of reasons that affect the emergence of song choices (place, time, form of existence, age and individual abilities of performers, and others) was identified. In modern folklore variation is understood as a specific feature of folklore which manifests itself in the existence of folk art in in different versions. Results of the study revealed the existence of optional variety of Belarusian spring folk songs and round dances “Oj, nie rasci, kropie”. Rich material allowed us to make some conclusions about the structural and semantic pattern of existence of these options on traditional form of lines of verse, about different variants of the rhythmic structure of the song verse, nature of the melody, harmonies, and plot of invariant lexical elements. The study was conducted in line with the system analysis of verbal and musical components of folk calendar-ritual songs that are relevant in modern science in the field of Belarusian folklore, and as a whole.

Nonlinear changes in selection on a mating display across a continuous thermal gradient.

Understanding how animal communication varies across time and space is critical to understanding how animal signals have evolved and how they function. Changes in temperature, which occur across both time and space, can alter both the courtship and mate choice behaviour of ectothermic animals. In this study, we examine the effect of daily thermal variation on courtship and mate choice in the wolf spider Schizocosa floridana, which produces a complex song with vibrations from three distinct body parts. We test the hypothesis that different components of S. floridana's courtship respond differently to daily changes in temperature and that corresponding mate choice patterns lead to complex, overlapping shifts in selection on the display itself. By manipulating the thermal environment of courting and choosing pairs, we found that several song components increased in production rate with increased temperature, whereas others decreased, or did not respond at all. We also found evidence that selection on courtship shifts with temperature in several ways, with some display components experiencing directional selection at higher temperatures, but not at lower temperatures. Our findings make it clear that understanding the effect of environmental variation on communication is critical to understanding how selection operates on mate choice and how signals, particularly complex signals, evolve.

Anthropogenic noise masking diminishes house wren (Troglodytes aedon) song transmission in urban natural areas

ABSTRACT Anthropogenic noise changes the acoustic environment in which avian signals have evolved, possibly decreasing active space or the area over which signals may be detected and discriminated by receivers. Linking signal transmission patterns to signal function and species’ spatial ecology is important for understanding behavioural changes of receivers in noise. We tested whether varying levels of ambient noise affects transmission of two structurally distinct sections of male house wren (Troglodytes aedon) song used for short- and long-distance communication. We placed our experiment in an ecological context by measuring signal degradation and attenuation in relation to species-typical spacing patterns to investigate whether song structure is maintained within (short-distance within-pair communication) and between territories (long-distance male-male and extra-pair communication) depending on noise levels. Songs experienced more masking and fell below thresholds for detection and discrimination at shorter distances under noisier conditions. Decay of signal-to-noise ratios and cross-correlation factors in noise were so pronounced that song components used for both short- and long-distance communication did not transmit beyond average territory boundaries. Noise masking could affect species ecology: if signals are not detected by intended receivers in noisier habitats, settlement, space use and social interactions may be fundamentally altered compared to those in quieter environments.

Distinct patterns of geographic variation for different song components in Daurian Redstarts Phoenicurus auroreus

ABSTRACTCapsule: Components of Daurian Redstart Phoenicurus auroreus song have evolved along independent trajectories and show a mix of clinal and dialect patterns of geographic variation.Aims: To investigate multiple structural components of song in Daurian Redstarts Phoenicurus auroreus as they varied among five locations across South Korea. To test whether different components of the same signal can evolve along independent trajectories, or else are constrained to evolve in correlated fashion.Methods: Two distinct song components were investigated: the introductory whistle and the complex syllable. For both segments, we made both qualitative and quantitative comparisons of similarity among individuals both within and among populations.Results: Patterns of geographic variation differed substantially between the two song segment types. Introductory whistles varied widely both within and among individuals, and were distributed across space in a mosaic pattern. Complex syllable parts showed high within-individual similarity and a distinctly clinal pattern of geographic variation, with the exception of a distinct dialect in one population isolated by a high-elevation mountain range.Conclusions: The results suggest that different components of Daurian Redstart songs have evolved along independent trajectories; that specific song components may show a mix of clinal and dialect patterns of geographic variation; and that different song components might simultaneously transmit distinct patterns of information about individual, dialect or species identity.

Territorial responses to song components in a suboscine, the vermilion flycatcher

Vermilion flycatchers songs are composed of two acoustically different parts: a first part (FP) containing a variable number of introductory elements, and a second part (SP) composed of four elements. Previous work suggests that the FP is important for territorial competition and that it conveys information on threat level. By exposing free-living males to playbacks of complete songs (CS’s), FP’s and SP’s, we evaluated the relative contribution of each song part in males’ territorial responses. Males called in response to all three treatments, suggesting each song component is important for territorial competition. Males’ call response did not differ toward CS’s and FP’s, and toward CS’s and SP’s (although a non-significant tendency was found for SP’s to elicit a weaker response than CS’s), but it was greater toward FP’s than toward SP’s. These results, coupled with previous work, further support the idea that the FP plays a special role during territorial competition and may give information on level of threat. We further discuss our result in terms of mechanistic and functional hypotheses.

Developmental changes in song production in free-living male and female New Zealand bellbirds

Song development research has been dominated by studies of northern hemisphere species where typically only males sing. However, female song is present in many species and recent research shows that female song is in fact the ancestral trait for songbirds. Here we present results from a field-based cross-sectional study comparing song development in both sexes of New Zealand bellbirds, Anthornis melanura. We asked whether both sexes develop song at a similar rate, and how the components of a song differ with age. The motor phases of each sex began at similar ages, with subsong starting at 3 weeks posthatching and song types crystallizing by 24 weeks. Song components were compared between three age groups: learning phase, first breeding season and adults. Song structure and acoustic properties were similar between sexes within the learning phase (except for mean fundamental frequency) but differed in adults. The variety of syllable types produced was more widespread in the learning phase and differed significantly between age groups and sexes. Individual syllable production varied in consistency between age groups for both sexes and we suggest that more complex syllables may require more practice to develop to maturity. The findings support the consensus that female and male bellbirds learn song at similar rates; however, differences between the sexes in the learned song components result in sexually dimorphic songs. This study is novel in that we used a field-based approach in which the complex song of male and female wild birds was compared between age groups ranging from fledging to adulthood. Our study contributes to current knowledge of female song development, a topic important for further understanding the selection pressures driving song evolution in songbirds.

Song recorded near a super-group of humpback whales on a mid-latitude feeding ground off South Africa.

Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are well known for their complex song which is culturally transmitted and produced by males. However, the function of singing behavior remains poorly understood. Song was observed from 57 min of acoustic recording in the presence of feeding humpback whales aggregated in the near-shore waters on the west coast of South Africa. The structural organization of the song components, lack of overlap between song units, and consistency in relative received level suggest the song was produced by one "singer." The unusual timing and location of song production adds further evidence of plasticity in song production.

So much for the city: Urban-rural song variation in a widespread Asiatic songbird.

Song plays a fundamental role in intraspecific communication in songbirds. The temporal and structural components of songs can vary in different habitats. These include urban habitats where anthropogenic sounds and alteration of habitat structure can significantly affect songbird vocal behavior. Urban-rural variations in song complexity, song length and syllable rate are not fully understood. In this study, using the oriental magpie-robin (Copsychus saularis) as a model, we investigated urban-rural variation in song complexity, song length, syllable rate, syllable length and inter-syllable interval. Comparing urban and rural songs from 7 countries across its natural Asiatic range (Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand), we found no significant differences in oriental magpie-robin song complexity. However, we found significant differences in temporal song variables between urban and rural sites. Longer songs and inter-syllable intervals in addition to slower syllable rates within urban sites contributed the most to this variance. This indicates that the urban environment may have driven production of longer and slower songs to maximize efficient transmission of important song information in urban habitats.

Listening in the bog: II. Neural correlates for acoustic interactions and spacing between Sphagniana sphagnorum males

Males of the katydid Sphagniana sphagnorum maintain inter-male distances from one another using agonistic song interactions with a frequency-modulated song that consists of alternating audio and ultrasonic parts. We studied the neuronal representation of this song in auditory receptors and interneurons of receivers, using playbacks of songs that mimicked the absolute and relative sound pressure levels of the two song modes varying with distance. The tuning and sensitivity of both receptors and interneurons strongly determine their responses to the two song modes at different distances. Low-frequency interneurons respond preferentially to the audio mode of the song at larger distances. High-frequency (HF) interneurons respond preferentially to the HF component of the song at close range. ‘Switch interneurons’ are sensitive to both spectral song components, but exhibit a typical activity switch towards the high-frequency mode at distances nearer than 3–6 m. The activity of the latter two groups of interneurons correlates with the distance in the field at which males begin to interact acoustically with their neighbours. Important information about the rate of changes in the song mode is represented by the afferent activity despite the influence of the masking song produced by a sympatric katydid species.