Somatic Nerve Research Articles

A cadaveric study of thoracic paravertebral spaces from the point of view of paravertebral block

Background: Paravertebral block (PVB) is a regional anesthetic technique, in which a local anesthetic is injected into the thoracic PVS, resulting in ipsilateral somatic and sympathetic nerve blockade. Objectives: The present study aimed at observing the extent of thoracic paravertebral space (TPVS) at the levels of T1–2, T6–7, and T11–12 by measuring the horizontal and vertical spread of the dye in the Indian population. Materials and Methods: Methylene blue dye was injected into the TPVS at the levels of T1–2, T6–7, and T11–12 and its spread observed. Results: A total of 25 cadavers were studied. The extent of horizontal the spread was average of 83.0 mm at the level of T1–2, 103.0 mm at the level of T6–7, and 88.2 mm at the T11–12 level. The average vertical spread in the intercostal space at the level of T1–2 was found to 48.1 mm, at the level of T6–7 was found to be 44.6 mm, and at the level of T11–12 was found to be 55.04 mm. The maximum vertical spread of dye was over three intercostal spaces. Sixty-four percent of the cadavers studied showed a spread of dye from TPVS to lumbar paravertebral space. In 20% of the cadavers, a contralateral spread of injected dye was observed. The average depth of the needle to reach the TPVS was observed to be 36.8, 35.7, and 36.1 mm for T1–2, T6–7, and T11–12, respectively. Conclusions: A paravertebral block (PVB) has immense potential in regional anesthetic techniques involving thoracic and lumbar dermatomes. The present study will be helpful for surgeons and anesthesiologists to reduce uncertainties of the spread of anesthetic agents in thoracic PVB and its complications.

Extracellular and Intracellular Magnesium Deficiency Found in Pregnant Women with Preeclampsia and Gestational Diabetes Is Associated with Overexpression of Notch Proteins, Cytokines, p53, NF-kB and Proto-Oncogenes: Potential Importance in Growth Retardation, Stillbirths, Fetal Mutations and Increased Cardiovascular Risks and Stroke with Advancing Age in Pregnant Women

In 1983, three of us reported in “Science” that umbilical-placental arteries and veins, obtained from normal pregnant women at term delivery, when exposed in vitro to low concentrations of Mg2+ went into vasospasm; the lower the Mg2+, the greater the contractile force developed. These blood vessels also demonstrated amplified contractile force development when challenged with circulating amines and peptides (e.g., norepinephrine, 5-HT, angiotensin II, etc.). We suggested that severe Mg deficiency during pregnancy could in part be responsible for spontaneous abortions, loss of fetuses, stillbirths, and developmental alterations in infants. Using short-term dietary Mg deficient animals, we have noted a great many molecular and biochemical alterations in ventricular, atrial and somatic vascular smooth muscle alterations including DNA methylation and histone changes leading us to speculate that Mg deficiency may represent a genotoxin promoting mutations and causing epigenetic changes. Over the last 35 years, we have new data on severely preeclamptic and gestational diabetic pregnant women that gives credence to our original hypothesis and demonstrates that recently- discovered developmental proteins, originally found 100 years ago in Drosophila fruit flies termed the “Notch pathway”, due to effects on its wings, appears to be important in development of the umbilical-placental blood vessels in pregnant women. Along with the developmental molecule, p53, these Notch proteins clearly alter the behavior of the umbilical-placental vessels. We believe these new findings probably help to explain many of the genetic-toxicity effects seen in women later in life who develop strokes and cardiovascular diseases. Notch alterations could also play an important role in babies born with cardiac defects.

Scientific review of the aesthetic uses of botulinum toxin type A.

Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A), onabotulinumtoxinA (Botox) was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for temporary improvement of glabellar lines in patients 65 years and younger in 2002, and has also been used widely for aesthetic purposes such as hyperhidrosis, body shape contouring, and other noninvasive facial procedures. BoNT-A inhibits presynaptic exocytosis of acetylcholine (ACh)-containing vesicles into the neuromuscular junction at cholinergic nerve endings of the peripheral nervous system, thereby paralyzing skeletal muscles. ACh is the most broadly used neurotransmitter in the somatic nervous system, preganglionic and postganglionic fibers of parasympathetic nerves, and preganglionic fibers or postganglionic sudomotor nerves of sympathetic nerves. The scientific basis for using BoNT-A in various cosmetic procedures is that its function goes beyond the dual role of muscle paralysis and neuromodulation by inhibiting the secretion of ACh. Although the major target organs for aesthetic procedures are facial expression muscles, skeletal body muscles, salivary glands, and sweat glands, which are innervated by the somatic or autonomic nerves of the peripheral cholinergic nerve system, few studies have attempted to directly explain the anatomy of the areas targeted for injection by addressing the neural physiology and rationale for specific aesthetic applications of BoNT-A therapy. In this article, we classify the various cosmetic uses of BoNT-A according to the relevant component of the peripheral nervous system, and describe scientific theories regarding the anatomy and physiology of the cholinergic nervous system. We also review critical physiological factors and conditions influencing the efficacy of BoNT-A for the rational aesthetic use of BoNT-A. We hope that this comprehensive review helps promote management policies to support long-term, safe, successful practice. Furthermore, based on this, we look forward to developing and expanding new advanced indications for the aesthetic use of BoNT-A in the future.

Embryological Development and Topographic Anatomy of Pelvic Compartments-Surgical Relevance for Pelvic Lymphonodectomy.

Background: The oncological outcome of surgery for the treatment of pelvic malignancies can be improved by performing pelvic lymphonodectomy. However, the extent and regions of lymph node harvest are debated and require profound knowledge of anatomy in order to avoid collateral damage. Methods: The embryological development and topographic anatomy of pelvic compartments in relation to pelvic lymphonodectomy for rectal, uterine, and prostate cancer are reviewed. Based on pre-dissected anatomical specimens, lymph node regions and drainage routes of the posterior and urogenital pelvic compartments are described in both genders. Anatomical landmarks are highlighted to identify structures at risk of injury during pelvic lymphonodectomy. Results: The ontogenesis of urogenital and anorectal compartments and their lymphatic supply are key factors for adequate lymphonodectomy, and have led to compartment-based surgical resection strategies. However, pelvic lymphonodectomy bears the risk of injury to somatic and autonomic nerves, vessels, and organs, depending on the regions and extent of surgery. Conclusion: Embryologically defined, compartment-based resection of pelvic malignancies and their lymphatic drainage routes are based on clearly delineated anatomical landmarks, which permit template-oriented pelvic lymphonodectomy. Comprehensive knowledge of pelvic anatomy, the exchange of surgical concepts between specialties, and minimally invasive techniques will optimize pelvic lymphonodectomy and reduce complications.

Crosstalk between histological alterations, oxidative stress and immune aberrations of the emerging PFOS alternative OBS in developing zebrafish

Sodium p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate (OBS) has been widely applied as a novel PFOS alternative in many industrial fields. However, our knowledge about its toxic effects is limited. In this study, the toxicities of PFOS and OBS in zebrafish larvae were compared by examining their effects on histology, oxidative stress and immune responses. Mortality and malformations caused by OBS were lower than those caused by PFOS under the same exposure concentrations. However, both PFOS and OBS caused histological alterations, manifesting in somatic striated muscle cell necrosis and a reduction in intestinal fold height, respectively. Significant increases in MDA and ROS content were observed in the PFOS and OBS treatment groups, respectively, suggesting the occurrence of oxidative stress in the zebrafish larvae. Furthermore, the transcriptomic and qRT-PCR results showed that the expression of most immune-related genes was upregulated in both PFOS and OBS treatment groups, but the latter was to a lesser extent. Consistent with their mRNA expression, the expression of the IL-1β, CXCL8, MMP9 and Casp8 proteins was significantly elevated following OBS exposure. However, the expression of these proteins was not affected by PFOS, possibly because the translation process was severely disrupted. Collectively, both OBS and PFOS could induce oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in zebrafish larvae. Our findings highlight that the health risks of OBS as a substitute for PFOS should not be ignored.

Scalenus Syndrome: A Literature Review

Scalenus syndrome is often diagnosed as thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS). We performed literature searching reporting scalenus syndrome and we narratively describe the finding in this review. Scalenus syndrome is a unique clinical entity and commonly occurred. This syndrome can be classified into neurogenic TOS (nTOS) on the interscalene triangle, which also related to myofascial pain syndrome. There are three factors that contribute to scalenus syndrome, which are congenital anomaly, trauma, traumatic myositis, and hypertrophy of scalenus anterior muscle. The symptoms of scalenus syndrome can be divided into two types, which are neurologic and vascular symptoms. The neurologic manifestation can originate from the somatic and sympathetic nervous system. There is microscopic evidence of inflammation, hypertrophy, degeneration, and fibrosis of scalenus anterior muscle in scalenus syndrome cases. Scalenus syndrome can be treated surgically or conservatively. Non-surgical or conservative treatment can be applied to mild scalenus syndrome, especially nTOS, in the initial phase. Surgical management should be performed in persistent symptoms of nTOS or involving subclavian artery manifesting as arterial TOS (aTOS). Scalenus syndrome has quite similar clinical manifestation as nTOS and aTOS. However, this clinical syndrome should be considered as different entity because of different pathophysiology compared to TOS. Scalenus syndrome is caused by dynamic pathology of anterior scalenus muscle.

Potential modulating effect of the Ascaris suum nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) by compounds GSK575594A, diazepam and flumazenil discovered by structure-based virtual screening approach

Parasitic infections are a widespread health problem and research of novel anthelmintic compounds is of the utmost importance. In this study we performed a virtual screening campaign by coupling ligand-based pharmacophore, homology modeling and molecular docking. The virtual screening campaign was conducted using a joined pool of the Drugbank database and a library of purchasable compounds in order to identify drug like compounds with similar pharmacological activity. Our aim was to identify compounds with a potential antihelmintic modulatory effect on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR). We derived a 3D pharmacophore model based on the chemical features of known Ascaris suum nAChR modulators. To evaluate the in silico predictions, we tested selected hit compounds in contraction assays using somatic muscle flaps of the Ascaris suum neuromuscular tissue. We tested the modulatory effects of GSK575594A, diazepam and flumazenil hit compounds on nematode contractions induced by acetyl choline (ACh). The compound GSK575594A (3 μM) increased the Emax by 21 % with the EC50 dose ratio of 0.96. Diazepam (100 μM) decreased the Emax by 15 % (1.11 g to 0.95 g) with the EC50 ratio of 1.42 (shifted to the left from 11.25 to 7.93). Flumazenil decreased the EC50 value (from 11.22 μM to 4.88 μM) value showing dose ratio of 2.30, and increased the Emax by 4 % (from 1.54 g to 1.59 g). The observed biological activity was rationalized by molecular docking calculations. Docking scores were calculated against several binding sites within the Ascaris suum homology model. We constructed the homology model using the ACR-16 subunit sequence. The compound GSK575594A showed strong affinity for the intersubunit allosteric binding site within the nAChR transmembrane domain. The binding modes of diazepam and flumazenil suggest that these compounds have a comparable affinity for orthosteric and allosteric nAChR binding sites. The selected hit compounds displayed potential for further optimization as lead compounds. Therefore, such compounds may be useful in neutralizing the growing resistance of parasites to drugs, either alone or in combination with existing conventional anthelmintics.

ГИПОТАЛАМИЧЕСКИЕ МЕХАНИЗМЫ РЕГУЛЯЦИИ СТАРЕНИЯ

The hypothalamus is the most important integrator of functions of the autonomous, endocrine, somatic nervous systems; it is involved in the regulation of rhythmic processes and systemic aging. Putative hypothalamic nuclei responsible for the implementation of the developmental program of aging include the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the median group of nuclei, including the arcuate, ventromedial, and dorsomedial nuclei. Hypothalamic aging is accompanied by an excitation-inhibition imbalance due to dysregulation of the GABA-ergic system, decreased frequency of neuronal firing, impaired calcium metabolism, elevated nitric oxide production, decreased autophagy, and disturbed intracellular signaling, in particular Sirt1, mTOR, NF-κB, AMPK, P53, and FoxO. Also, an important role in hypothalamic aging belongs to specialized ependymal cells, tanycytes, as manifested in the disruption of tanycyte-neuron relationships and impaired barrier function of these cells. Hypothalamic neural stem cells, located mainly in the region of the middle hypothalamic nuclei, secrete exosomal microRNA also responsible for anti-aging effects of stem cells. The pool of hypothalamic neural stem cells, as well as microRNA production therein, decline with age.

State of corneal nerve fibers in systemic amyloidosis

To assess the state of CNF in systemic amyloidosis by confocal microscopy data obtained in vivo. The main study group included 16 patients (6 men and 10 women, mean age 60.5±11.6 years) with morphologically confirmed primary AL-amyloidosis, and 14 patients (5 men and 9 women, mean age 59.4±11.3 years) with genetically and morphologically confirmed hereditary TTR-amyloidosis. The control group included 23 healthy volunteers of the same age range without any neurological pathologies. The state of CNF was assessed by in vivo CCM data recorded on the HRT III system and its consequently processing using authors' self-developed program Liner 1.2. The criteria for neuropathy intensity was the degree of CNF tortuosity characterized by coefficients of anisotropy (KΔL) and symmetry (Ksym) of CNF orientation. According to the NIS scale, the manifestations of neuropathy in the subgroup of patients with TTR-amyloidosis were significantly more pronounced compared to AL-amyloidosis patients. The severity of clinical manifestations of neuropathy did not depend on the duration of TTR-amyloidosis and AL-amyloidosis (Spearman R rs=0.21, p=0.58 and rs= -0.49, p=0.055, respectively). Changes in the quantitative indicators (a decrease in the anisotropy coefficient and an increase in the symmetry coefficient of the fibers orientation) confirm increased tortuosity of CNF in systemic amyloidosis. The clinical picture of systemic amyloidosis is characterized by polymorphism of neurological manifestations that include various symptoms of damage to the peripheral somatic and autonomic nervous system. In vivo CCM can be used to reveal qualitative and quantitative changes in CNF in patients with systemic amyloidosis. However, statistical unreliability of the identified quantitative changes allows considering the state of CNF in amyloidosis only as a component of the disease monitoring algorithm, but not as a biomarker of the disease.

Histopathological studies on the degenerative changes of somatic muscle in soft tunic syndrome of ascidian, Halocynthia roretzi

Histopathological studies on the degenerative changes of somatic muscle in soft tunic syndrome of ascidian, Halocynthia roretzi

Interaction of agonists of a different subtype of the nAChR and carvacrol with GABA in Ascaris suum somatic muscle contractions.

Resistance of parasitic nematodes to anthelmintic drugs is a growing problem in human and veterinary medicine. The molecular mechanisms by which nematodes become resistant are different, but certainly one of the possible processes involves changing the drug binding site on the specific receptor. The significance of changes in individual subtypes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) for the development of resistance has not been clarified in detail. This study investigates the interaction of antinematodal drugs, agonist of different types of nAChRs and carvacrol with gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) on the contractions of parasitic nematode A. suum. In our study, GABA (3 μM) produced significant increase of contractile EC50 value for pyrantel, and nonsignificant for bephenium and morantel, from 8.44 to 28.11 nM, 0.62 to 0.96 µM, and 3.72 to 5.69 nM, respectively. On the other hand, the maximal contractile effect (Rmax) did not change in the presence of GABA. However, when A. summ muscle flaps were incubated with GABA 3 μM and carvacrol 100 μM, the EC50 value of pyrantel, bephenium, and morantel was increased significantly to 44.62 nM, 1.40 μM, and nonsignificantly to 7.94 nM, respectively. Furthermore, Rmax decreased by 70, 60, and 65%. Presented results indicate that the combined use of GABA receptor agonists and nicotinic receptor antagonists can effectively inhibit the neuromuscular system of nematodes, even when one of the nicotinic receptor subtypes is dysfunctional, due to the potential development of resistance.

Current Emerging Therapy for Amyloidosis Neuropathy

Peripheral neuropathy is a type of neurological disorder in which patients with complex inherited neurological defects present significant phenotype in the peripheral nervous system. Hereditary amyloidogenic transthyretin (hATTR) neuropathy is typical polyneuropathy caused by single-nucleotide variants in the gene encoding transthyretin (TTR) and leads to transthyretin misfolding and systemic deposition of amyloid. One of the clinical hallmarks of hATTR neuropathy is polyneuropathy of the destruction of the somatic and autonomic peripheral nervous system, leading to loss of autonomy. Progressive amyloid accumulation also causes multi-organ dysfunction and death. There are many therapeutics that have been proposed and developed in these years. These therapies aim to reduce or eliminate hATTR from the plasma, stabilize the hATTR to prevent deposition, and dissolute the amyloid misfolding matrix. Recently, gene therapy strategy is being deployed to treat recessive genetic disorders by eliminating the expression of the mutated genes. Thus, gene-silencing approaches have been used to manage this amyloidosis neuropathy in the broad stages and produce some degree of improvement of this disease. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Inotersen (an antisense oligonucleotide (ASO)) and patisiran (a small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) for the treatment of hATTR polyneuropathy to suppress hATTR expression. Inotersen, a 2’-O-methoxyethylmodified ASO, which acts by reducing the production of transthyretin, and has been demonstrated to improve the quality of life in early hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis polyneuropathy. I here focus on the RNA-targeted therapy with particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms by which antisense oligonucleotide can be designed to modulate transthyretin RNA function for being a novel therapy for hereditary amyloidosis neuropathy.

Morphological and functional variability in central and subcentral motor cortex of the human brain

There is a long-established link between anatomy and function in the somatomotor system in the mammalian cerebral cortex. The morphology of the central sulcus is predictive of the location of functional activation peaks relating to movement of different effectors in individuals. By contrast, morphological variation in the subcentral region and its relationship to function is, as yet, unknown. Investigating the subcentral region is particularly important in the context of speech, since control of the larynx during human speech production is related to activity in this region. Here, we examined the relationship between morphology in the central and subcentral region and the location of functional activity during movement of the hand, lips, tongue, and larynx at the individual participant level. We provide a systematic description of the sulcal patterns of the subcentral and adjacent opercular cortex, including the inter-individual variability in sulcal morphology. We show that, in the majority of participants, the anterior subcentral sulcus is not continuous, but consists of two distinct segments. A robust relationship between morphology of the central and subcentral sulcal segments and movement of different effectors is demonstrated. Inter-individual variability of underlying anatomy might thus explain previous inconsistent findings, in particular regarding the ventral larynx area in subcentral cortex. A surface registration based on sulcal labels indicated that such anatomical information can improve the alignment of functional data for group studies.

The male external urethral sphincter is autonomically innervated.

The aim of the present study was to describe autonomic urethral sphincter (US) innervation using specific muscular and neuronal antibody markers and 3D reconstruction. We performed en-bloc removal of the entire pelvis of three male human fetuses between 18 and 40 weeks. Serial whole mount sections (5 μm intervals) were stained and investigated. The sections were stained with Masson's trichrome and Eosin Hematoxylin, and immunostained with: anti-SMA antibody for smooth muscle; anti-S100 antibody for all nerves; and anti-PMP22 antibody, anti-TH antibody, anti-CGRP antibody, anti-NOS antibody for somatic, adrenergic, sensory and nitrergic nerve fibers, respectively. The slides were digitized for 3D reconstruction to improve topographical understanding. An animated reconstruction of the autonomic innervation of the US was generated. The external and internal US are innervated by autonomic nerves of the inferior hypogastric plexus (IHP). These nerves are sympathetic (positive anti-TH antibody), sensory (positive anti-CGRP antibody), and nitrergic (positive anti-NOS antibody). Some autonomic fibers run within the neurovascular bundles, posterolaterally. Others run from the IHP to the posteromedial aspect of the prostate apex, above an through the rectourethral muscle. The external US is also innervated by somatic nerves (positive anti-PMP22 antibody) arising from the pudendal nerve, joining the midline but remaining below the rectourethral. This study provides anatomical evidence of an autonomic component in the innervation of the external US that travels in the neurovascular bundle. During radical prostatectomy, the rectourethral muscle and the neurovascular bundles are to be preserved, particularly during apical dissection.

Erectile dysfunction in common neurological conditions: A narrative review.

Neurogenic erectile dysfunction (NED) can be defined as the inability to achieve or maintain an erection due to central or peripheral neurologic disease. Neurologic diseases can also affect the physical ability and psychological status of the patient. All these factors may lead to a primary or secondary NED. Medication history plays an important role since there are many drugs commonly used in neurologic patients that can lead to ED. The assessment of NED in these patients is generally evolving with the application of evoked potentials technology in the test of somatic and autonomic nerves, and functional magnetic resonance imaging. With the electrophysiological examinations, neurogenic causes can be determined. These tools allow to categorize neurologic lesion and assess the patient prognosis. The first-line treatment for NED is phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Second-line treatments include intracavernous and intraurethral vasoactive injections. Third-line treatments are penile prostheses. The efficacy and safety of each treatment modality depend on the specific neurologic condition. This review discusses the physiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of ED in multiple peripheral and central neurologic conditions, as well as for future research.

Fascial Plane Blocks: More Questions Than Answers?

Fascial Plane Blocks: More Questions Than Answers?

La música de Beethoven en la investigación fisiológica del electrocardiograma a la imagen por resonancia magnética

La percepción musical produce cambios fisiológicos en los sistemas nerviosos central, autónomo y somático, que pueden verse reflejados en alteraciones del flujo sanguíneo y eléctrico a nivel cerebral, en conjunción con modificaciones de las respuestas cardiovasculares, respiratorias, térmicas, musculares o electrodérmicas, entre otras. La ciencia actual proporciona las herramientas precisas que permiten medir estas variables, ofreciendo un marco único para estudiar la influencia de la música en el ser humano. En este trabajo se analizan las investigaciones que han utilizado la música L. V. Beethoven como estímulo para registrar la actividad biológica humana.

Recording drug responses from adult Dirofilaria immitis pharyngeal and somatic muscle cells

Despite being considered one of the most pathogenic helminth infections of companion animals, members of macrocyclic lactone class are the only drugs available for the prevention of heartworm disease caused by Dirofilaria immitis. Alarmingly, heartworm prevention is at risk; several studies confirm the existence of macrocyclic lactone resistance in D. immitis populations across the United States.To safeguard the long term prevention and control of this disease, the identification and development of novel anthelmintics is urgently needed. To identify novel, resistance-breaking drugs, it is highly desirable to:Unfortunately, none of the three above statements can be answered sufficiently for D. immitis and most of our hypotheses derive from surrogate species and/or in vitro studies. Therefore, the present study aims to improve our fundamental understanding of the neuromuscular system of the canine heartworm by establishing new methods allowing the investigation of body wall and pharyngeal muscle responses and their modulation by anthelmintics. We found that the pharynx of adult D. immitis responds to both ivermectin and moxidectin with EC50s in the low micromolar range. We also demonstrate that the somatic muscle cells have robust responses to 30 μM acetylcholine, levamisole, pyrantel and nicotine. This is important preliminary data, demonstrating the feasibility of electrophysiological studies in this important parasite.

Very complex and difficult rehabilitation process in a post traumatic SCI (Spinal Cord Injury) complete tetraplegic patient with intense and refractory spasticity and frequency of spasm with presacral pressure sores (successfully operated)- case report

Introduction. Spinal cord injury (SCI) is the injury of the spinal cord from the foramen magnum to the cauda equina which occurs as a result of compulsion, incision or contusion.(1) As a result of the injury, the functions performed by the spinal cord are interrupted at the distal level of the injury. SCI causes serious disability among patients.(2) The treatment and rehabilitation period is long, expensive and exhausting in SCI. The results of SCI bring not only damage to independence and physical function, but also include many complications from the injury. Neurogenic bladder and bowel, urinary tract infections, pressure ulcers, orthostatic hypotension, fractures, deep vein thrombosis, spasticity, autonomic dysreflexia, pulmonary and cardiovascular problems, and depressive disorders are frequent complications after SCI.(3) Material and method. Having the patient’s consent and The Teaching Emergency Hospital “Bagdasar-Arseni” Ethics Committee’s approval, a 48 years old patient, complete tetraplegic with intense and refractory spasticity and frequency of spasm with presacral pressure sores (successfully operated) post traumatic spinal cord injury. The patient was functionally assessed using the following scales: : Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended, Modified Rankin Scale, Modified Ashworth, Penn Spasm Frequency Scale Functional Independence Measure, FAC International Scale, Quality of Life Assessment. Conclusions. Spasticity is a common secondary impairment after SCI characterized by hypertonus, increased intermittent or sustained involuntary somatic reflexes (hyperreflexia), clonus and painful muscle spasms. Severe spasticity may contribute to increased functional impairment, contractures, ulcers, posture disorders and pain. Treatment should start as soon as possible to prevent such negative effects. Keywords: tetraplegia, spinal cord injury, spasticity, pressure sores, traumatism, rehabilitation,

An insight on Drosophila myogenesis and its assessment techniques.

Movement assisted by muscles forms the basis of various behavioural traits seen in Drosophila. Myogenesis involves developmental processes like cellular specification, differentiation, migration, fusion, adherence to tendons and neuronal innervation in a series of coordinated event well defined in body space and time. Gene regulatory networks are switched on-off, fine tuning at the right developmental stage to assist each cellular event. Drosophila is a holometabolous organism that undergoes myogenesis waves at two developmental stages, and is ideal for comparative analysis of the role of genes and genetic pathways conserved across phyla. In this review we have summarized myogenic events from the embryo to adult focussing on the somatic muscle development during the early embryonic stage and then on indirect flight muscles (IFM) formation required for adult life, emphasizing on recent trends of analysing muscle mutants and advances in Drosophila muscle biology.