Somali Research Articles

Post War Education and Curriculum History in Somalia

This study assessed the correlation between post war education and curriculum history of secondary schools in Somalia. With the use of descriptive research design, a survey questionnaire and an interview schedule were utilized to garner data which was used to answer the research question on how post war education leads to curriculum history of secondary schools with an aim of developing a new curriculum to address contemporary issues in education such as helping address the current identity crisis in Somalia. The study adopted a descriptive research design with quantitative and qualitative approaches. A sample of 300 respondents were selected using Slovene’s formula. Data was collected using questionnaire and interview guide and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson’s chi-square statistical test for quantitative data and thematic analysis was used for analyzing qualitative data .The study findings established a significant relationship between post war education and curriculum history in Somalia . The study concluded that post war education has awakened people in Somalia that a relevant curriculum is essential for national development. From the study findings, the researcher recommended that there is a need for a new history curriculum. An integrated thematic instructional model was proposed to deliver a new content and narrative that seeks to develop social cohesion and reconciliation in order to reconstruct national identity in post-conflict Somalia.

Rift Valley fever and Brucella spp. in ruminants, Somalia

BackgroundFourteen-years after the last Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus (RVFV) outbreak, Somalia still suffers from preventable transboundary diseases. The tradition of unheated milk consumption and handling of aborted materials poses a public health risk for zoonotic diseases. Limited data are available on RVF and Brucella spp. in Somali people and their animals. Hence, this study has evaluated the occurrence of RVFV and Brucella spp. antibodies in cattle, goats and sheep sera from Afgoye and Jowhar districts of Somalia.MethodsSerum samples from 609 ruminants (201 cattle, 203 goats and 205 sheep), were serologically screened for RVF by a commercial cELISA, and Brucella species by modified Rose Bengal Plate Test (mRBPT) and a commercial iELISA.ResultsTwo out of 609 (0.3 %; 95 %CI: 0.04–1.2 %) ruminants were RVF seropositive, both were female cattle from both districts. Anti-Brucella spp. antibodies were detected in 64/609 (10.5 %; 95 %CI: 8.2–13.2 %) ruminants by mRBPT, which were 39/201 (19.4 %) cattle, 16/203 (7.9 %) goats and 9/205 (4.4 %) sheep. Cattle were 5.2 and 2.8 times more likely to be Brucella-seropositive than sheep (p = 0.000003) and goats (p = 0.001), respectively. When mRBPT-positive samples were tested by iELISA, 29/64 (45.3 %; 95 %CI: 32.8–58.3 %) ruminant sera were positive for Brucella spp. Only 23/39 (58.9 %) cattle sera and 6/16 (37.5 %) goat sera were positive to Brucella spp. by iELISA.ConclusionsThe present study showed the serological evidence of RVF and brucellosis in ruminants from Afgoye and Jowhar districts of Somalia. Considering the negligence of the zoonotic diseases at the human-animal interface in Somali communities, a One Health approach is needed to protect public health.

Harambee! 2.0: The Impact of HIV-Related and Intersectional Stigmas on HIV Testing Behaviors Among African Immigrant Communities in Seattle, Washington.

African immigrants are disproportionately affected by HIV compared to U.S.-born individuals, and early HIV testing is the key challenge in ending the HIV epidemic in these communities. HIV-related stigma appears to be the most significant barrier to testing for HIV among African communities in King County, WA. In this formative study, we conducted thirty key informant interviews and five focus group discussions (n = total 72 participants) with Ethiopian, Somali, and Eritrean people living with HIV, health professionals, religious and other community leaders, and lay community members in King County to better understand HIV-related and intersectional stigmas’ impact on HIV testing behaviors. We used inductive coding and thematic analysis. Participants from all communities reported similar themes for HIV-related and intersectional stigmas’ influences on HIV testing behaviors. Misconceptions or poor messaging, e.g., regarding treatability of HIV, as well as normative or religious/moral beliefs around pre/extramarital sex contributed to HIV-related stigma. Intersecting identities such as immigrant status, race/ethnicity, and having a non-English language preference, all intermingle to further influence access to the U.S. healthcare system, including for HIV testing. These findings can be used to inform future research on community-led approaches to addressing early HIV testing amongst African immigrant communities.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10461-021-03396-5.

Prevalence of Anti-Toxoplasma gondii and Anti-Brucella Spp. Antibodies in Pregnant Women From Mogadishu, Somalia.

Toxoplasmosis and brucellosis are zoonotic diseases of worldwide distribution. They both cause abortion and infertility in human and animals. Limited data are available about these pathogens in Somali people and their animals. Hence, this study has evaluated the prevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii and anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in pregnant women in Mogadishu, Somalia. Serum samples from 307 pregnant women from Mogadishu, Somalia were tested for anti-T. gondii antibodies by Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) and anti-Brucella spp. antibodies by Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and a commercial competitive-ELISA (cELISA). A total of 119/307 (38.76%) pregnant women had a prior history of abortion. A total of 159/307 (51.79%; 95% CI: 46.2–57.35%) pregnant women were seroreactive for T. gondii by LAT at different stages of pregnancy. For Brucella spp., when RBPT and cELISA were combined 4/307 (1.30%; 95% CI: 0.36–3.30%) pregnant women were seroreactive to anti-Brucella spp. antibodies, being 2/307 (0.65%; 95% CI: 0.18–2.34%) by RBPT and 3/307 (0.98%; 95% CI: 0.33–2.83%) by cELISA. Two women were seroreactive for both agents. A high seropositivity to T. gondii and low seropositivity to Brucella spp. have been found in pregnant women from Mogadishu, Somalia. Considering the high number of abortions in the country associated to the fact that awareness on other zoonotic abortifacient pathogens in Somalis is very low, further studies should be conducted to evaluate the potential causes of abortions.

نظرة المجتمع الصومالي للقوامة: دراسة في المنظور الإسلامي

This research’s topic revolves around a sensitive and strange issue that usually causes imbalance in family bonding and undermining stewardship in Somali society, which is the issue of leaving maintenance of the family to the women due to lack of supporter and carer for them. Therefore, it makes the highest population of the women in that society engage in different kind of jobs, which gives them the power of controlling homes and the society. The researcher adopts the inductive research methodology to gather pieces of evidence on the custodian of stewardship and how to control the family from the word of Allah and the sayings of the prophet Muhammad, as well as books and articles written by Somali scholars and researchers and United Nation report regarding the women guardianship in Somali society. The researcher also adopts analytical method to analyse the texts gathered from the texts related to the topic, and followed by interview, which is used to collect data related to the topic from nine respondents; four among them are elites, another four are laymen, and the president of (Somali Scholars Association), then analyse the interview and derive the effects of misunderstanding the stewardship on Somali community. In conclusion, the research finds that the civil war is one of the factors contributed to strengthening women stewardship in the Somali community, and that the Somali men misunderstood the true meaning of guardianship due to lack of deep understanding of it. The researcher also observed that addiction of men to the “khat weed” is another factor contributes to the men unseriousness in the Somali community and results to family separation in the community, hence, it leads Somali women to go out for work and get more power over the men, which causes emotional and educational deprive for Somali children, and consequently leads to the behavioral deviation in them. It is also found through the research that lack of state’s security and protection for women, absence of a tangible family regulation, loss of moral supports from religious scholars.

Fractured Ties: Power Competition and Politics Influencing Security Strategies of Kenya and Somalia in the Horn of Africa Region

Kenya and Somalia share a common pre- and post-colonial history, and both countries have a substantial ethnic Somali population. They also share a resource-rich marine boundary, which has been the centre of controversy as each country claims it. Additionally, both Kenya and Somalia are critical players in the Horn of Africa region. Their security relations will to a significant extent, determine the peace and stability of the region. Although the consideration of power competition could primarily shape Somalia's security strategy in the Horn of Africa region, the role of domestic politics and economic factors in Somalia's strategic thinking cannot be discounted. Kenya has primarily adopted a pragmatic approach to managing her relations with Somalia over the past decade. With Kenya and Somalia sharing a long porous border, which is frequented by al-Shabaab and other insurgent groups, it is expected that skirmishes will erupt as forces on either side tackle security threats. Other pertinent issues affecting the Kenya-Somalia relations include increased piracy, unlicensed, illegal and unreported fishing along the Gulf of Aden alongside toxic waste dumping in the area. To ensure that these activities are controlled and curtailed, there is a need for solid cooperation, notwithstanding the long-simmering differences between the two nations. Based on a wide range of sources, this article examines salient issues contributing to simmering tension between Kenya and Somalia. It also provides a critical evaluation of Kenya's perceptions of Somalia and their implications.

Second-generation British Somali women: The translocal nexus of London and global diaspora

Drawing upon ethnographic investigation, this article analyses the digital media practices of second-generation British Somali women who live in London. It addresses the dynamic relationships between digital media and diasporic identity formation by focusing on how second-generation women articulate their diasporic urban and transnational identities via youth-oriented online cultural spaces. It demonstrates that they use the internet and social media platforms to position themselves as urban dwellers in London and members of the global Somali diaspora at the same time. In this context, the author proposes that these young women’s digital practices create a translocal nexus that intertwines urban and transnational social fields in line with their gendered and generation-specific experiences and aspirations. Through this translocal nexus, these young women produce multilayered identities and negotiate their multiple belongings with a youth-oriented perspective and style in a digitally interconnected world.

Assessing the impact of terrorism and counter-terrorism on public perceptions among ethnic minorities in Kenya

ABSTRACT Since the Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) launched their military offensive against al-Shabaab in 2011, the country has experienced an unprecedented number of retaliatory attacks mounted by the jihadist-insurgent group. These attacks prompted a robust domestic counter-terrorism response that disproportionately targeted ethnic Somalis within Kenya. Using 2008 and 2014 data from the Afrobarometer and exploiting of the temporal variation in terrorist attacks, this study evaluates whether this period of terrorist attacks and intense counter-terrorism measures affected ethnic Somali minorities’ public perceptions towards the police and the government differently from other ethnic groups in Kenya. We find that the period following the 2011 intervention had significant varying impact on public perceptions between ethnic Somalis and other ethnic groups.

Living with diversity and change: intergenerational differences in language and identity in the Somali community in Britain

Abstract The Somali community in Britain has been portrayed as largely homogenous and rather problematic, unwilling to integrate into mainstream British society, a perception that is reinforced by the media and government policies. The government policies tend to ignore the internal diversity and change that the community is experiencing. Drawing on data from a family language policy project, this paper aims to explore intergenerational changes in language preference and use and associated issues of identity within the Somali community in Britain. We look at how the changes in language preference and practice manifest themselves through reported language use and language policies at home, how the changes are affecting the British Somali youths in particular, and how ideas of Somaliness and Britishness are negotiated on an individual level, as well as on a community-wide level through Somali-led organisations. And we highlight the work that the community is doing to tackle issues of intergenerational language shift and Somali identity building. The study aims to contribute to a better understanding of the struggles of the Somali community in Britain in dealing with diversity and change, an understanding that is crucial to the development of appropriate policies regarding the community.

Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting among Somali Women in the U.S. State of Arizona: Evidence of Treatment Access, Health Service Use and Care Experiences.

Background. Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is associated with adverse sexual, reproductive and psychological sequelae. The aim of this study was to quantitatively explore factors related to satisfaction with FGM/C-related care in the US focusing on access to care, health service utilization, and women’s experiences. Methods. A community-based survey of 879 Ethnic Somali and Somali Bantu women using snowball sampling was conducted in Arizona. Bivariate, multivariable and ordered logistics analyses assessed the relationship between the aforementioned factors measured along six dimensions: non-discrimination, physical, economic, informational, health system accessibility and individual-level health service use factors. Findings. Most participants possessed FGM/C (77.4%), namely Type III (40.2%). FGM/C related health service use was low (14.3%). Perceived discrimination was associated with reduced satisfaction in care (OR = 0.22; CI 0.13–0.37). For FGM/C-specific variables, only recollection of adverse physical or psychological events at the time of circumcision predicted service use (OR = 3.09; CI 1.67–5.68). Somali Bantu (OR = 0.10; CI 0.02–0.44) and highly acculturated women (OR = 0.39; CI 0.17–0.86) had lower odds of service use. Conclusions. Achieving respectful care and outreach to women affected by FGM/C has contextual complexity. However, the clinical implications and insights provided may have broader impacts on advancing health equity for FGM/C-affected women.

Economic Impacts of COVID-19 on Microfinance Institutions and Small Businesses: Empirical Survey from Somalia

The microfinance institutions promote the entrepreneurial innovations that contribute the fundamentals of a healthy economy and job creation opportunities. In Somalia, the small businesses have ever been valuable resources to encourage the economic sustainability of Somali country. After the destruction in January 26, in 1991, the people of Somalia have relied on the entrepreneurial skills to develop small businesses on which the lives of many Somali people have hinged. Therefore, this study assesses the economic impacts of covid-19 on microfinance institutions and small businesses. The study follows descriptive correlation. The overall sample consisted of 40 participants in Benadir region. The study found that covid-19 has negative impact on both microfinance institutions and small businesses as shown by the mean index of microfinance institutions 1.72 and standard deviation 0.48, likewise, the mean index of small businesses scored 1.86 and standard deviation 0.69. Key words: Economic impacts , Covid -19, Microfinance Institutions, Small Businesses, Benadir region DOI: 10.7176/EJBM/13-6-21 Publication date: March 31 st 2021

Somali, Muslim, British: Striving in Securitized Britain, written by Giulia Liberatore

Somali, Muslim, British: Striving in Securitized Britain, written by Giulia Liberatore

Somali Fiction as Roadmaps for Peace and State Bulding in Civil-War Somalia

Somali Fiction as Roadmaps for Peace and State Bulding in Civil-War Somalia

KRITARCHY AS A SPECIAL FORM OF STATE (ON THE EXAMPLE OF SOMALIA)

The article analyzes the characteristic features of kritarchy a specific structure of society based on the power of the courts. Experts consider kritarchy primarily as a social or legal system, and some consider it a political regime. The author of the article attempted to study kritarchy as a form of state, a set of political and legal components (methods of organization of higher authorities, territorial structure of power, ways of its implementation) that can replace the usual forms of state in traditional societies. Kritarchy is considered a historical form of social and state structure that is not found today. Nevertheless, Somalia from the late 1980-ies to the present day, according to the author, is a modern example of kritarchy. In a weak, failed state, Somali society returned to a traditional way of life that created the basis for kritarchy. The author analyzes the courts as a substitute for the standard system of government, Somali law (a synthesis of customary and Islamic law) as an analog of standard legal systems, it demonstrates the viability of kritarchy as a form of state in the absence of traditions of usual forms of state in society.

COVID-19 AS A PROPAGANDA TOOL OF AL SHABAAB

Bu çalışma, El Şebab’ın, küresel bir salgın hâline gelen ve tüm dünyayı etkisi altına alan COVID-19’u propaganda aracı olarak nasıl kullandığını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Somali’de ilk COVID-19 vakasının 16 Mart 2020 tarihinde görülmesinin ardından salgının ülke genelinde giderek yayılması, merkezi hükümetin diğer ülkelerde olduğu gibi birtakım tedbirler almasına neden olmuştur. Ancak, başarısız devlet olarak tanımlanan Somali’nin salgın ile mücadelesi oldukça zordur. Bunun en büyük sebebi El Şebab’ın hükümeti salgına karşı yetersiz ve ilgisiz göstermeye çalışması ve kendince önlemler almaya başlamasıdır. Merkezi hükümetin, virüsle mücadelede eyaletlerle iş birliğinin ve koordinasyonun yetersiz olması ve üst düzey devlet görevlilerinin de virüse yakalanması El Şebab’ın propagandasını güçlendiren bir durum olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. 
 Çalışmada, nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılarak Birleşmiş Milletler Güvenlik Konseyi, Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (WHO), Birleşmiş Milletler Mülteciler Yüksek Komiserliği (UNHCR) ve Doğu Afrika Araştırma ve Stratejik Çalışmalar Merkezi’nin raporları ve medyaya yansıyanların betimlenmesine çalışılmıştır. Edinilen bulgular neticesinde, sömürgeleştirilen Somali halkını temsil ettiği ideolojisinden hareket eden örgütün, cihat ilanını meşrulaştırmak için işgalci Hristiyan ülkelerin virüsü yaydığı propagandasını yaptığı sonucuna varılmıştır.

Assessment of indigenous knowledge associated with Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) seed selection and the seed quality attributes in Fafen Zone of Somali Region, Ethiopia

Understanding agro-pastoralist’s indigenous knowledge associated with sorghum seed selection, seed systems, and seed quality management will help to devise strategies for enhancing the food and feed security in crop-livestock mixed farming system. With this intention, indigenous knowledge practices of on-farm sorghum seed selection and evaluation of the seed quality were surveyed, which ultimately contributes to sorghum genetic diversity maintenance in the agro-pastoral production system. Here, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and sorghum field observation were used. A total of 30 agro-pastoralists were interviewed and 16 seed samples were collected from traditional storage. It was observed that six local varieties of sorghum were the dominantly maintained and cultivated by agro-pastoralists of the study area. Among local varieties ‘Elmi jama’ is the predominated area allocated for sorghum production in both districts. Agronomic performance (drought resistance, stock borer, and bird resistance) and straw yield were highlighted as important criteria for making decisions to select sorghum to be used for seed selection and maintenance. Over 90% of the informants grow a local variety of sorghum by mixing early and late maturing varieties on the same plot of land to mitigate the risk of moisture shortage and/or drought season. Seed quality assessment from Gursum district showed better germination potential with an average of 86.99%. This research offers the status of seed selection practices and seed quality status in agro-pastoral context and recommends the way forward to enhance sustainability of sorghum seed maintenance. Key words: Agro-pastoralist, local variety, seed maintenance, seed quality, sorghum, crop-livestock system

Planning and implementing a targeted polio vaccination campaign for Somali mobile populations in Northeastern Kenya based on migration and settlement patterns

ABSTRACT Supporting the global eradication of wildpoliovrisu (WPV), this project aimed to provide polio and measles vaccines to a population frequenty missed by immunization services and campaigns, ethnic Somali children living among mobile populations within Kenya’s Northeastern Region. Additionally, nutritional support, albendazole (for treatment of intestinal parasites) and vitamin A were provided to improve children’s health and in accordance with regional vaccination campaign practices. To better understand movement patterns and healthcare-seeking behaviors within this population, we trained community-based data collectors in qualitative and geospatial data collection methods. Data collectors conducted focus group and participatory mapping discussions with ethnic Somalis living in the region. Qualitative and geospatial data indicated movement patterns that followed partially definable routes and temporary settlement patterns with an influx of ethnic Somali migrants into Kenya at the start of the long rainy season (April–June). Community members also reported concerns about receiving healthcare services in regional health facilities. Using these data, an 8-week vaccination campaign was planned and implemented: 2196 children aged 0–59 months received polio vaccine (9% had not previously received polio vaccine), 2524 children aged 9–59 months received measles vaccine (27% had not previously received measles vaccine), 113 were referred for the treatment of severe acute malnourishment, 150 were referred to a supplementary feeding program due to moderate acute malnourishment, 1636 children aged 12–59 months were provided albendazole and 2008 children aged 6–59 months were provided with vitamin A. This project serves as an example for how community-based data collectors and local knowledge can help adapt public health programming to the local context and could aid disease eradication in at-risk populations.

24.G. Workshop: Reconstructing public health institutions in Somalia

Abstract The overall aim of this workshop is to present the ongoing efforts to restore central national public health institutions in Somalia like The National Institute of Health Somalia (NIHS), and to discuss critical factors to rebuild the health system and restore health institutions in fragile states using Somalia as an example. The workshop will focus on how to accelerate this process in order to reach the sustainable development goals and to help Somalia to achieve universal health coverage by 2020. The Public Health Agency of Sweden and The Norwegian Institute of Public Health organize this joint workshop in order to commemorate our late colleague and co-worker Mohamed Guled Farah, whós hard and tireless work was pivotal in the reestablishment of NIHS, with the ultimate goal of improving the health of the Somali people. The workshop will be chaired by Khalif Bile, who is a Senior Advisor to the Federal Ministry of Health Somalia. Bile has an outstanding experience in global public health in general and is very knowledgeable about the challenges and opportunities of the health system in Somalia and of the general health status of the population. Highly relevant presentations will be made by prominent key players and researchers in the field, followed by ample time for audience interaction. Kassim Abdi Jimale, Lecturer, Somali National University, will give an introduction and background to the restoration of the National Reference Laboratory and the process to establish the National Institute of Health Somalia. Somalia is a country that is affected by complex emergencies resulting from prolonged conflict, climate change, outbreaks of communicable diseases and a dysfunctional health system. The Public Health Agency Sweden, with the support of Sida (Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency), supports the Federal Ministry of Health Somalia to restore vital health institutions such as the National Institute of Health Somalia (NIHS) to provide effective public health services within a country disrupted by conflict. There are several partners involved in this process, and a great deal of effort is put in coordination of activities. Joining hands, finding synergies and coordination of efforts is another key function of this workshop. Key messages Reaching UHC and the SDGs in Somalia require support to the re-establishment of strong, sustainable public health institutions like the National Institute of Health Somalia. Strengthening the public health system of Somalia requires coordinated, long-term, sustainable commitments and partnerships.

State territorialization at the margins: Property formalization and paperwork in the Ethiopian Somali frontier

This paper scrutinizes property formalization as an integral part of state territorialization and demonstrates how bounded spaces are fused with political authority. Despite a long history of contestations over land in the Ethiopian Somali frontier, state law gained significance as a regulatory frame to grant and secure property rights of ethnic Somalis in the city of Jigjiga. In the city's land registry archive, this increased the amount of paperwork through which the relation between the Ethiopian state and Somali citizens has been remade under ethnic federal rule. Based on ethnographic and archival research in Jigjiga, this paper examines the writing practices and performances of land governance experts at different sites of paperwork where property relations are brought on paper and drawn together into law and institutional hierarchies. It reveals property formalization to consolidate state-citizen relations in symbolic and material form: in the city's expansion area where law is entangled within an emerging property landscape, and in the city's registry archive where legal documents are preserved. On that basis, this paper captures state formation as both a cultural and material process. It does so by highlighting the mediating role of bureaucratic actors and artifacts in the inscription of the state's symbolic languages in an emerging property landscape.

Impact of Climate Change and Vulnerability Assessment of Pastoralists Located in South Central Somalia Based on Income and Marital Status

Recent changes in climate over the last three decades, have increased the incidences of severe droughts and floods in Somalia. Moreover, the frequent internal conflicts increases the level of vulnerability of its citizens’ to climate change impacts. The UNDP puts at 5 million, the number of Somali people affected by drought incidences. Notably, factors such as income and marital status influence the vulnerability status of individuals in the region. This study assessed the vulnerability and impact of climate change of South Central Somali pastoralists based on income and marital status. The research was conducted through structured interviews and questionnaires and the sample size for the study was 400. The divorcees, were found to be the most vulnerable, compared to the married, singles and widows. On the other hand, the higher income earners were found to be less vulnerable to climate change impacts compared to the lower income earners. The findings demonstrate that marital status and income, play a key role in influencing the level of vulnerability of the individuals in the study area. The information can be used to formulate policies that will provide appropriate interventions to the most affected groups.