Somali Research Articles

Attitude toward female genital mutilation among Somali and Harari people, Eastern Ethiopia.

BackgroundFemale genital mutilation (FGM) is a worldwide problem, and it is practiced by many communities in Africa and Asia as well as immigrants from those areas. This practice results in short- and long-term health consequences on women’s health. Like many other developing countries, FGM is widely practiced in Ethiopia, especially among Somali and Harari ethnic groups. Despite intensive campaigns against FGM in Ethiopia, since 2011, it has been practiced in the aforementioned communities. There is no recent information as to whether these campaigns have an impact on the attitude and practice of the community regarding FGM. This qualitative research was aimed at exploring the attitudes of Somali and Harari people between 18 and 65 years toward FGM.MethodsA purposive sampling technique was used to recruit 64 (32 in each region) participants. Data were collected from October to December 2015 in Somali and Harari Regions.ResultsThe findings showed that there was a strong support for the continuation of the practice among female discussants in Somali region, whereas male discussants from the same region and the majority of the participants from Harari region had a positive attitude toward the discontinuation of the practice. Marriageability was the major reason for practicing FGM in Somali region, whereas making girls calm, sexually inactive, and faithful for their husbands were mentioned in Harari region. Although young men in both the regions prefer to marry uncircumcised girls, the study showed that there are some differences in the attitude toward the FGM practice between the people in the two regions.ConclusionThe findings show that there is an attitudinal difference between the people in the two regions, which calls for behavioral change communication using women-centered approach and culturally appropriate strategies. As young people in both the regions had the intention to marry uncircumcised girls, there has to be a strong advocacy and multisectoral collaboration to stop FGM in both the regions.

In search of more than a state: trajectories of political ordering and identity plurality in Somalia

Past and present efforts at reconstructing a Somali state have centred on the long-standing claim that Somalis have constituted a ‘nation in search of a state’. Yet, casting Somali state trajectories in a historical light, this article shows that the Somali sociopolitical construct has always been much less homogenous and united than frequently depicted. Analysing Somali state-making endeavours from the final years of colonialism in the late 1950s to the politico-territorial fragmentation of the 1990s, I argue that Somalis have not only been in search of a state, but Somali society has been characterized by the emergence of plural political identities, inhibiting the consolidation of a national identity. I propose that the identity plurality has largely hinged on the volatility and multiplicity of institutions broadcasted in the context of changing politico-territorial orders. The article suggests that political identity in Somalia has been dynamic and fluctuating during the post-independence decades, that it hinged significantly on aspects of territorial ordering and concomitant institutional structures, and that the formation of a cohesive Somali national identity has in part been hampered by the governments’ inability to build and implement overarching political institutions. This carries important implications for contemporary efforts at addressing conflict and fragility in Somalia. Federalization and mini-state formation are likely to see regional identities trump its national counterpart. Yet, it might also spark a process in which political identities start overriding kinship ones, which has been a shared central policy objective of many governments of the past.

English and Somali differences in understanding of "yellow"

English and Somali differences in understanding of "yellow"

‘The child that tiire doesn't give you, God won't give you either.’ The role of Rotheca myricoides in Somali fertility practices

ABSTRACTThe paper introduces the Baanashada Dumarka, a Somali fertility therapy carried out by a spirit medium, known locally as ‘Alaqad. Baanashada is aimed at women whose fertility issues are believed to be caused by spirits. The study also explores a component of the Baanashada, namely, the use of tiire (Rotheca myricoides), or the butterfly bush. Although Rotheca myricoides is known to possess a number of medicinal components as confirmed by studies of modern science, so far, there exist no studies on its potential (or lack of) fertility effects. Hence, the alleged fertility benefits of the butterfly bush need examining. The author is aware of at least one recent case that a Somali woman from Europe died of herbs placed in her cervix by a traditional healer in Somaliland. This piece of information indicated not only the role of herbal medicine in fertility practices, but also the popularity of traditional reproductive medicine beyond border, class or educational background. Yet, current research into Somali women's health focuses mainly on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), examined often without the context of wider cultural practices. This paper, however, suggests that rituals, beliefs and material culture play a paramount role in women's practices. For example, as explored elsewhere, the wagar, a wooden and sacred object made of the African olive, is critical for fertility practices. The current paper illuminates further the significance of reproduction practices in Somali society and the potential continuity of traditions associated with the perpetuation of kinship. It concludes that fertility rituals are part of a wider context of interaction with sacred landscapes, objects and archaeological sites, often associated with past legends in the Horn of Africa.

Khat chewing and cirrhosis in Somaliland: Case series.

BackgroundKhat chewing is common especially among men in East Africa and Yemen. It is generally viewed by the populace as a benign social custom. Several studies of ethnic Somali immigrants to Western countries suggest an association between khat chewing and hepatotoxicity, but the risk of hepatotoxicity related to khat chewing within African settings is not documented.AimTo identify and describe liver disease without evidence of alcohol exposure or infectious etiology in khat chewers.SettingsA university-affiliated teaching hospital in Somaliland.MethodsCases of cirrhosis of unknown cause were identified from the clinical practice of Al Hayatt Hospital in Borama, Somaliland, during 14 months beginning December 2012.ResultsEight Somali men aged 27–70 years living in Somaliland were identified with cirrhosis of otherwise unknown cause. All chewed khat habitually for many years (15–128 bundles per day times years of use). A liver biopsy of one man was consistent with khat hepatotoxicity. Four of the eight men died during the study period.ConclusionKhat chewing may be associated with health consequences including severe hepatotoxicity with cirrhosis.

Somalia and Failed Transitional Federal Government: Is an Islamic Government a Solution to Piracy Problems in the Gulf of Aden?

Somalia is widely regarded as the epitome of a failed state. Even though the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), a contraption of Somalia’s neighbours and other international actors, has been the main entry for Western engagement with the Somali people, the TFG remains an incapable actor in relation to the destitution encountered by Somalis on a daily basis. State failure in Somalia may, to an important extent, be attributed to the fluctuant forces of (political) power the country has witnessed since pre-colonial times. The egalitarian anarchy, used to describe the clan-based social arrangements, which to a certain extent has transcended into the modern era, can explain the highly complex, factionalised and violent milieu of contemporary Somalia. However, the overwhelming majority of Muslims in Somalia and the continuing disagreements between the TFG and al-Shabaab – the main internal opposing faction to the TFG – have predominantly concentrated on the different role and function Islam ought to play in any new political arrangement. Somalia’s dismal state of affairs spans several decades, but the recent surge in pirate attacks in the Gulf of Aden has contributed to the renewed attention to the region. Although the lack of political authority should not be regarded as the sole cause for the endemic phenomenon of piracy, history suggests that a strong authority can be successful in containing the problems caused to the shipping industry and, consequently, the global economic trade. This thesis will advance the idea that the Union of Islamic Courts in 2006 ensured level of economic revival, widespread rule of law, and, consequently, a sharp decline in pirate attacks.

Childhood Vaccine Refusal by Immigrant Groups

Vaccine refusal in specific immigrant communities (e.g., measles, mumps, rubella vaccine refusal among Somali families in Minnesota) leads to increased

Diaspora and African Sustainabilities: Stories from Somalis in Maine, USA

Diaspora and African Sustainabilities: Stories from Somalis in Maine, USA

The Media and Africa: The Portrayal of Africa in the New York Times (1955–1995)

Eighteen U.S. soldiers were killed and dozens were wounded in a fierce battle in Mogadishu, Somalia, on October 3–4, 1993. Their deaths were a direct outgrowth of the Clinton administration’s handling of a series of United Nations (UN)-sanctioned military interventions in Somalia, which are popularly referred to as Operation Restore Hope. With the Cable News Network (CNN) providing almost instantaneous transmission to audiences in the United States and abroad, the victorious Somali forces not only paraded a captured U.S. helicopter pilot, Corporal William Durant, through the streets of Mogadishu, but also dragged the naked corpse of a U.S. soldier past mobs of Somali citizens who vented their anger by spitting on, stoning, and kicking the body.

The Origins and Demise of the Ethiopia-Eritrea Federation

In the late 1970s, the Ethiopia-Eritrea conflict and the Ethiopia-Somalia border war over the Ogaden region has centered world attention on Soviet-Cuban activities in the Horn of Africa. Although the Somali army was defeated by the combined powers of the Ethiopians and the Soviet-Cuban forces in mid-March 1978, the tension between the two countries was still high. Among the other problems facing the region is that of the Eritrean struggle for self-determination.

Somalia rising from the ashes

These days Somalis reminisce about life before the war. With a sense of nostalgia they reflect on the carefree days of swimming, picnics and cinema; when children were in school, the economy was growing and business was booming, providing jobs for thousands of Somali citizens.

Traumatic pre-migration experiences: A population-based study of Russian, Somali and Kurdish origin migrants in Finland

Introduction Ongoing mass conflicts and the resulting flow of displaced persons have increased interest on pre-migration experiences of migrants, but population-based studies of entire migrant groups are still scarce. Objective We aim to assess the prevalence of a variety of possibly traumatic pre-migration experiences among Russian, Somali and Kurdish origin migrants in Finland and to determine which socio-demographic factors are associated with traumatic pre-migration experiences. Methods We used data from the Finnish Migrant Health and Wellbeing Study (Maamu). The survey sample comprised of Russian, Somali and Kurdish origin migrants, aged 18–64 years ( n =1000 per group). The data specified eight different traumatic events common to those exposed to war and conflict. The age-adjusted prevalence of traumatic pre-migration experiences were calculated in the ethnic groups by gender using predicted margins. Results Seventy-seven percent of Kurdish, 58% of Somali, and 21% of Russian origin migrants had experienced at least one traumatic event in the former host country. One third of the Kurdish men had been subject to torture. Surprisingly, migrating as a refugee or asylum seeker was not found to be associated with traumatic pre-migration experiences. Conclusion Results indicated an alarmingly high overall trauma exposure among Kurdish and Somali migrants in Finland. This should be taken into account in the planning of mental health services in the new host country.

Cross-border mobility, transnationality and ethnicity as resources: european Somalis’ post-migration mobility practices

ABSTRACTBased on a qualitative study, this article explores post-migration mobility practices developed by Somali women and men who have settled in Europe. It focuses on the ‘politics of mobility’, considering cross-border mobility an unequally distributed resource through which people access different forms of capital, and thus an element of social differentiation. The article reveals that respondents invest resources in places other than those where they acquired them, benefiting from a favourable symbolic exchange rate between the different places. Furthermore, while a significant part of the economic, social and cultural capital of these migrants is acquired within ethnically diversified contexts, it is mostly reinvested in networks and places where their Somali ethnicity becomes an asset—either in ethnically homogeneous networks or in activities that address Somali people's needs. Cross-border mobility, transnationality and ethnicity become core resources that enable these migrants to mobilise their capital where it can be valued most highly and to access advantageous social positions, thus fostering upward social mobility. The article argues that these strategies are less the result of an identity-based ethnic preference than a compensatory mechanism implemented by people who have few prospects of having their assets valued within the wider networks in their country of residence.

A New Model Village? Nairobi Development and the Somali Question in Kenya, c. 1915–17

Abstract Kenya has a problem with its urban ethnic Somali population. Those who reside in suburbs of Nairobi are assumed to have entered the country illegally from Somalia, or to have migrated from the large refugee camps located in Dadaab and Kakuma in the north of the country. As such many perceive the Somali to be temporarily encamped in the city. This is despite the fact that Somali claims in Nairobi can be traced back to the first establishment of the British East Africa Protectorate. By outlining the history of a proposed new model village for the Somali, and the ways in which urban Somalis negotiated early British development of the city, this article emphasizes the longevity of Somali claims for rights and recognition from the state. Even though the British perceived them as nomads and livestock traders, and therefore not part of the city’s future, they actively negotiated their resettlement. The article argues that this was not simply and expression of political demands, but also a manifestation of an urban aspiration that is also reflected in more recent Somali migration to urban areas.

Stages of Colonialism in Africa: From Occupation of Land to Occupation of Being

This paper draws primarily on my own scholarship, supplemented by the limited academic resources available in the “peripheries” of the world where I live and work (namely, Somali society and Darfur, Sudan), to consider the relationship between colonialism and psychology. I first consider the history of psychology in justifying and bolstering oppression and colonialism. I then consider the ongoing intersection of colonialism and psychology in the form of metacolonialism (or coloniality). I end with thoughts about decolonizing psychological science in teaching, social, and clinical practice. To decolonize psychological science, it is necessary to transform its focus from promotion of individual happiness to cultivation of collective well-being, from a concern with instinct to promotion of human needs, from prescriptions for adjustment to affordances for empowerment, from treatment of passive victims to creation of self-determining actors, and from globalizing, top-down approaches to context-sensitive, bottom-up approaches. Only then will the field realize its potential to advance Frantz Fanon’s call for humane and just social order.

Learning to be Swedish: governing migrants in labour-market projects

This article focuses on adult learning in labour-market projects targeting unemployed migrants in Sweden. Drawing on a Foucauldian analysis of governmentality, the results of the study problematize the ways that such projects produce individualizing discourses – targeting individuals, constructing them as responsible for their position as unemployed. The project’s target groups are generally defined not on the basis of ethnicity as such, but rather using terms such as non-Nordic background, foreign born and immigrants. However, two groups considered especially problematic are constructed through ethnicity: Somali and Roma people. The notion of social competency is analysed here as a way of constructing the unemployed migrants as not yet employable. Another significant result concerns the notion of gender equality, which makes migrants governable because it constructs boundaries between Swedishness and Otherness. In line with this rationality, the targeted migrants are governed towards Swedishness through learning gender equality. These results raise a number of issues of great concern for the inclusion of migrants in the labour market, as they highlight a paradoxical relationship between the inclusive ambitions of interventions targeting unemployed migrants and the ethnicized discourses of ‘Othering’ that imbue these learning practices.

Can we ever really tackle diabetes in ethnic minorities?

Can we ever really tackle diabetes in ethnic minorities?

Wagar, Fertility and Phallic Stelae: Cushitic Sky-God Belief and the Site of Saint Aw-Barkhadle, Somaliland

This article is the first to present a study on the wagar, a sacred wooden sculpture kept by Somali women. This study explores the wagar and its significance as a sacred medium within fertility rituals and the religious syncretism in which such indigenous and non/pre-Islamic practice is appropriated and applied for reproduction purposes. The wagar seems to denote a Cushitic symbol of belief in sacred trees within Somali society. The article further explores the potential link between the wagar and the Sky-God Waaq, adhered to by the Cushitic people of the Horn both before and during the practice of Christianity and Islam. The author suggests that the religious centre of Saint Aw-Barkhadle, located in the twelfth-century Islamic ruined town—which was a major pre-Islamic ritual and burial site according to recent archaeological work—may be linked with the practices of the pre-Islamic religion of Waaq. The article suggests the wagar and phallic gravestones discovered at Aw-Barkhadle and in other parts of the Horn of Africa may be part of Sky-God belief, with an ideology rooted in fertility. Along with traditional archaeological methods, the article also uses the knowledge-centred approach, taking into account local knowledge, oral history and folklore to explore this region’s past. The study of the wagar and the shrine of Aw-Barkhadle contributes to the archaeology of religion and to historical archaeology in the Horn of Africa.

In vitro germination and direct shoot induction of Yeheb (Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl.)

‘Yeheb’ (Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl) is a multipurpose and evergreen shrub and endemic to southeastern corner of Ethiopia and Somalia. It is adapted to low and irregular rainfall and survives a very long dry season. It has enormous economic and food security role to the pastoralist of Somali in Ethiopia. However, the plant is threatened with extinction due to overexploitation and its’ poor natural regeneration capacity. In addition, ‘yeheb’ is usually reported having limited reproductive capacities and often have very specific and limited conditions for seed germination, flowering and seed shelf life. Therefore, to overcome these propagation challenges, an experiment was conducted with the aim of developing a protocol for the in vitro regeneration of ‘yeheb’ from cotyledonary node. The result of these studies revealed that seed was washed by 5% sodium hypochlorite for ten min in aseptic condition found to be more effective in surface sterilization. The sterilized seed cultured on half strength of Gamborg (B5) medium was found to be the most suitable medium for germination (26.67%).The highest shoot initiation percentage (89 % of explants produces shoots), number of shoots per explant and number of leaf per shoot were obtained from cotyledonary node explants cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) media supplemented with 2.00 mg. l-1 N6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) within nine weeks. While, the highest shoot length and shoot fresh weight were recorded from control (free BAP) and 6.00 mg. l-1 BAP, respectively. The highest shoot multiplication (4.56 number of shoot induced) and elongation (2.97cm) were obtained from the induced shoot were cut and placed on MS media supplemented with 2.00 mg. l 1BAP+6.00 mg. l-1of gibberellic acid (GA3) and free BAP+6.00 mg. l-1 of GA3, respectively. The elongated shoots were transferred to different media supplemented with various types and levels of hormones but none of them induced root. As a conclusion, this is the first attempt for direct in vitro regeneration of C. edulis and permissible result for cryopreservation.

Microbiological quality and safety of street vended raw meat in Jijiga town of Somali Regional State, southeast Ethiopia

A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the microbial quality and safety of street vended raw meats in Jijiga town, Ethiopia. Questionnaire was used to assess the profile of 33 street vendors. A total of 60 meat samples (30 beef and 30 goats) were collected. The pH and holding temperature were measured. Six microbial groups were counted using standard methods. The aerobic mesophilic flora was characterized. Vendors had very little degree of awareness on food safety and food borne diseases. The sanitary condition of the vending environment was poor. The mean pH values were 6.03 and 5.98 for beef and goat meat samples, respectively. The samples were held in a temperature range of 17.5-27.5°C. Total mesophilic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae and coliforms, Staphylococci, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and moulds had counts of >7, 4, 6, 4 and 4log cfu/g respectively for both species. The aerobic plate counts were dominated by Staphylococcus spp. followed by Enterobacteriaceae. Salmonellae were also isolated from 5 (8.3%) meat samples. There were significant differences (P<0.05) between goat and beef samples in total mesophilic bacteria and Staphylococci counts. The samples harbored high counts of microorganisms. Trainings, inspections, infrastructures and code of practice are recommended. Key words: Jijiga, raw meat, street vendors, quality, safety.