Solukhumbu District Research Articles

Sustainable Tourism Practices in Nepal and Its Challenges

This piece of writing delves into the contemporary status of sustainable tourism practices within the Mount Everest region, emphasizing ecological conservation, cultural preservation, and revenue generation while pinpointing significant obstacles. A study was conducted in Solukhumbu district utilizing a purposive sampling technique to gather data from 23 individuals, comprising trekking guides, hotel proprietors, porters, local community members, ward committee personnel, and tourists. The results underscore critical deficiencies in sustainability practices across three dimensions. Environmentally, tourism stakeholders exhibit limited awareness and insufficient conservation efforts, exacerbated by inadequate waste management. Socio-culturally, the absence of advocacy for indigenous culture by local stakeholders and a lack of understanding of local traditions among guides jeopardize cultural preservation. Economically, the seasonal character of tourism engenders income volatility, compelling residents to pursue alternative livelihoods. This has resulted in migration to urban centers or abroad, further intensifying income disparity within the community. Challenges encompass ineffective environmental strategies, feeble cultural promotion, and inequalities in income distribution. Tackling these challenges necessitates collaborative endeavors among stakeholders to enact responsible tourism practices. Fortifying legal frameworks, advancing cultural education, and empowering local communities are vital to augment sustainability and equitable advantages in the tourism sector of the Everest region.

Climatic Trends and Local Perception in Nechasalyan Rural Municipality: A Climate Change Scenario

Climatic policy responses are influenced by how communities and individuals perceive and understand climate variabilities and changes. Integrating community perceptions with observed climate data can provide valuable information to support policies to reduce climate-related risks and enhance climate change adaptation. This study examines climate change in the Nechasalyan Rural Municipality of Solukhumbu district, Nepal, through an integrated analysis of meteorological data and local people's perceptions. Temperature and rainfall data for 31 years i.e. 1991-2021 were collected and analyzed from nearest Meteorological station (Okhaldhunga Station). Local peoples’ perceptions were gathered from the household survey (n=70) along with key informant interview (n= 10) and focus group discussion (n= 5). The analysis revealed that the average maximum, winter and summer temperature trends seemed to be increasing where average minimum trend was decreasing of which only average winter temperature was significant (p<0.05). Despite insignificance in the increases in average annual maximum and summer temperatures, they pose potential challenges in the long run. Similarly, the average annual rainfall as well as seasonal rainfall trends seemed to be decreasing, and only average July rainfall trend was statistically significant (p<0.05). The results indicate that while local perceptions about the changes in the temperature were consistent, there was disconnection between these perceptions and observed rainfall trends. The consistency between local perceptions and rising temperature trends suggests that people remember temperature changes more vividly than rainfall patterns, warranting future research to investigate the causes of disparities between local perceptions and observed climate trends. Additionally, exploring effective communication strategies to bridge the gap between scientific findings and local understanding could enhance community climate resilience.

Examining the Economic Impact of Cardamom Farming on Household Resources

This study investigates the production economics and household contribution of cardamom farming, analyzing socio-economic characteristics, value chain, and issues in Likhu river corridor. Data from a mid-July 2022 survey of 100 households in Likhu-Pike Rural Municipality, Solukhumbu District, is supplemented by indirect interviews and secondary sources. For analysis and presentation, descriptive and inferential statistical tools are employed. Results reveal a significant 25.83% share of cardamom income in total household income, with wild animal crop destruction being a major problem. The study recommends expert training, identifying in-farm income sources, adopting a cooperative marketing approach, and improving grading and packaging practices for higher benefits.

Teachers’ Motivational Factors and Student Learning Achievements

The present study entitled Teachers' Motivational Factors and Student Learning Achievements tries to identify the factors responsible for low and high motivation of teachers and to investigate how far the teachers' motivational factor affects students learning achievements. I used qualitative research method and narrative design as a research methodology and unstructured interview as tool for data collection. The participants were 5 secondary level teachers of Solukhumbu district taken through purposive non-random sampling procedure. The findings were workload management, remuneration, recognition, accountability, career development, institutional environment, availability of resources, administrative efficacy, opportunities for professional growth, and autonomy. The study emphasizes the pivotal role of motivation in creating a positive classroom environment, enhancing instructional effectiveness, and providing personalized attention to students. Ultimately, motivated teachers serve as inspirational role models, fostering student engagement and driving improved learning outcomes. The implications included practical training should be given to the teachers for updating contemporary skills.

Geostatistics and inverse distance weighing (IDW) multivariate interpolation methods for regional geochemical stream sediment survey for base metal prospecting around Wapsa, Solukhumbu District, Nepal

A systematic regional geochemical stream sediment survey for base metals copper, lead, and zinc over an area of 200 sq.km was carried out around Wapsa in Solukhumbu District. 200 stream sediment samples were collected from active streams and analyzed them using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) method. All chemical analysis data were interpreted with geostatistical analysis and inverse distance weighing (IDW) multivariate interpolation method using the geographical information system (GIS). The results have shown consistency with geology, homogeneity, and mineralization in the area which is verified with significant copper anomaly over an old working area around Wapsa. The log10 transformed data of Cu, Pb, and Zn were used to estimate threshold and anomaly determination. The method is valid for regional geochemical stream sediment surveys for base metals prospecting.

A new subgenus of Epaphiopsis Uéno, 1953 (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Trechini) discovered in the mountains of South-East Asia, and a new species of the subgenus Allepaphiama with atypical characteristics

Summary The Epaphiopsis complex, a complex of trechine ground beetle genera, is composed of the genus Epaphiopsis and six other genera, all of which are endemic to the Far East. Since an exhaustive definition of this genus complex has not been available to date, the general morphology of all the constituent genera of the Epaphiopsis complex is presented here. A new subgenus of Epaphiopsis, Shunichiepaphius n. subgen., is created for a new species, E. unidentata n. sp., discovered from northern Vietnam. This monotypic new subgenus, and its type species, are characterized by the strongly transverse microsculpture covering the nearly entire dorsal surface of head; by the first discal setiferous pore of elytra located in interstria 4; by the preapical pore of elytra located before the level of the anterior end of recurrent stria; by the large copulatory piece of endophallus which is doubled and knot-shaped with the apical part rounded; and above all by the male protarsi with only the first segment dilated and denticulate inwards. A new species of the subgenus Allepaphiama, E. (A.) beni n. sp., was collected in the Solukhumbu district of Nepal, which is the border between the range of the Trechus rolwalingensis species-group and the previously known range of the subgenus Allepaphiama. This new species bears a reduced chaetotaxy, i.e. only one seta on each side of the clypeus, and, as in the species described by Schmidt in 2016, only two discal setae in stria 3 (or interval 4) but without discal seta in stria 5. Finally, to help a better understanding of the systematics of the Epaphiopsis complex, a preliminary overview of the female ectodermic genital tract of the taxa belonging to the Epaphiopsis complex and several other taxa of Trechini is presented.

Eye health knowledge among basic level science and health education teachers in Solukhumbu district of Nepal

Prior studies showed that school teachers have an important role in controlling blindness at the community level. A school eye health promotion program is essential because it helps cover health services for children in the community. The study aimed to assess the factors of eye-health problems and eye-health knowledge at the basic level of school teachers at the primary level of eye health problems and care. A cross-sectional study design was implemented with a self-administered questionnaire. A total of 292 health and science basic-level school teachers have been selected from the Solukhumbu district. The sample size was determined by Slovin's formula. Data were analyzed using the IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) V20. The proportion of teachers knowing eye health problems and care of children is higher among teachers having qualifications at master level or above (mean rank = 179.99) than the bachelor level (mean rank =146.30), grade twelve (mean rank =149.06) and grade ten (mean rank =116.91) which was statistically significant (p<0.05. The study concluded that the level of qualification of the teacher was significantly associated with knowledge of the eye-health. Hence teachers who have low qualifications should be trained in the eye-health.

Notes on the distribution of Ligularia kingiana (W. W. Sm.) Hand.-Mazz. (Asteraceae): new records

The Himalayan species Ligularia kingiana (W. W. Sm.) Hand.-Mazz., which for a long time was considered as endemic to the state of Sikkim (India), was first found during field work in the state of Nagaland, almost 700 km from the type locality. The study of herbarium materials and literature revealed that this rare species also occurs in eastern Nepal (Solukhumbu District) and northern Myanmar (Kachin State). For Nepal, L. kingiana is reported for the first time.

Analysis of the Perinatal Care System in a Remote and Mountainous District of Nepal.

Despite significant improvements in recent years, maternal and neonatal health outcomes remain poor in many regions of the world. One such area is in the remote mountainous regions of Nepal. The purpose of this study is to describe the current antenatal care practices and delivery support in a mountainous district of Nepal. This study took place in Solukhumbu District between December 2015 and February 2018. A household survey was created using evidence-based maternal and neonatal care indicators. Women who had delivered within the previous two years were surveyed regarding antenatal and delivery care they received. A standardized health facility survey was used to evaluate the operational status of health facilities. The study was approved by the Nepal Ministry of Health and the University of Utah IRB. A total of 487 households and 19 facilities were surveyed. 35.7% (174/487) of deliveries occurred in a health facility (hospital, primary health care center or birthing center). 35.2% (171/486) of deliveries were attended by a skilled birth attendant. 52.8% (47/89) of women who did not deliver in a facility noted that transportation issues and not having sufficient time to travel during labor prevented them from delivering in a facility. No health posts had staff trained in obstetric and neonatal emergencies. The majority of women in Solukhumbu District do not receive high quality antenatal and delivery care. An intervention that would make antenatal care and delivery support more accessible could improve maternal and infant outcomes in this district and other similar regions.

Evaluation of teachers' self-efficacy on integration of eye health education and promotion at basic schools in Solukhumbu district, Nepal: A cross-sectional study.

Many studies have shown that eye health services in Nepal are still far behind in reaching schools. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the teacher's self-efficacy for the incorporation of eye health promotion activities. A cross-sectional study design was applied with a self-administrated questionnaire. A total of 292 teachers were randomly selected for this study. Male (153.38) older-aged and Dalit ethnic group (159.81) teachers, as well as teachers who had participated (146.85) in the program, had higher self-efficacy to conduct school eye health-promoting activities than non-participants in schools. But, teaching experience is not determined to get self-efficacy for testing of visual acuity. Teachers with higher qualifications are found to be skillful. The school's eye health program has not been superseded by any relevant legislation. As a result, it's critical to concentrate on provisions that may be included in the school curriculum.

VALUE-CHAIN ANALYSIS OF GINGER SUB-SECTOR IN SOLUKHUMBU DISTRICT, NEPAL

Survey research was carried out on Value Chain Analysis of Ginger Sub-Sector in Solukhumbu district with an objective of finding the value chain of ginger in Solukhumbu district of Nepal. Household level data from 60 household from Necha-Salyan rural municipality and Thulung Dudhkoshi rural municipality were sampled using random sampling technique. Few Local traders, wholesaler and retailers were also interviewed. Average area under ginger cultivation was found 2.35 ropani. Average cost of production per ropani was Rs. 14450.38 and majority of production cost of the production was covered by seed. The productivity of ginger in study area was 8.22 Mt/ha which was lower than national average and higher than the district productivity. The average price of the fresh ginger was Rs. 85.63/kg and Rs.200/kg for the dried ginger. Price fluctuation, lack of proper market, white grub, rhizome rot, lack of road access were the major problems for ginger grower in Solukhumbu District. Despite many problems, ginger cultivation in the study area was profitable business with B/C ratio 2.37 and B/C ratio of dried ginger was 1.13. Most of the sampled farmers were involved in the farming for their livelihood. Improved cultivation practices with recommended variety, timely plantation and seed treatment, simple processing like cleaning, sorting and grading are of immediate need to generate additional income to the producer.

Does adoption of agroforestry increase farm production and dietary diversity in the hills of Nepal?

There are few studies on the influence of agroforestry intervention in the farming and food system. We thus conducted this study to assess farm production diversity and household dietary diversity in the coffee-based agroforestry in Deusa village, Solukhumbu district, Nepal. This study collected data through questionnaire survey, food diary checklist for 24 hours diet recall, transect walk, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. We compared farm production diversity and household dietary diversity scores between two agroforestry types - traditional and coffee-based. We used Pearson’s Chi-Square and Fisher’s Exact tests to assess the association between agroforestry type and 16 food groups wise consumption. Results showed that the farm production diversity is positively associated with the household dietary diversity. Among 16 food groups, households under coffee-based agroforestry system were more likely to consume dark green leafy vegetables (Chi square- 5.385; df=1; p<0.05), and descriptive statistics showed relatively higher consumption for most of the other food groups. It indicates that agroforestry intervention can be beneficial to improve farm production diversity and household dietary diversity in the longer run. Thus, agroforestry promotion is not only important in enhancing biodiversity and farm income but also equally vital in improving food and nutrition security for smallholders.

Coffee income and its determinants: A case of Deusa village, Nepal

Understanding economic contribution of coffee production and influencing socioeconomic and environmental factors for coffee income are vital for its promotion. The primary aim of this study was therefore to assess the contribution of coffee income to the household total cash income and identify influencing socioeconomic and environmental factors for coffee income in Deusa, Solukhumbu district of Nepal. A semi-structured questionnaire survey gather data from 55 coffee-growing households. We used Ordinary Least Square regressions (OLS) for identifying influencing factors for coffee income. Household annual gross income, from farm and off-farm income sources, estimated was around NPR 161 thousand, and the median value was 57.4 thousand. On average, coffee farming contributed almost 9% of the total household income in the study area. The OLS regression showed that sufficient labor availability (p<0.05), access to coffee-related trainings (p<0.05), and access to irrigation facilities (p<0.05) significantly increased coffee earnings. Likewise, environmental variables - elevation (negatively, p<0.05) and shade trees availability for coffee farming (positively, p<0.05) also influenced earnings from the coffee farming. We recommend provisions of trainings, improved irrigation facilities and tree saplings for shade management for sustainable coffee production in the study area.

Assessment of Health Seeking Behavior Regarding Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Solukhumbu District, Nepal

The objective of the study was to assess the health seeking behavior of the people regarding complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in remote area Dhudhakaushika, Gaunpalika of Solukumbu District during April – August 2017. The sample size was 300 (129 male and 171 female). Semi-structured question was design and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was conducted. The results indicated that about three fourths of the respondents visited a modern medical institution 224 (74.7%), a little under one-half 129 (43.0%) visited Dhami-Jhakri and 85 (28.3%) contacted the Jharphuke who chanted a Mantra over a sick adult or child. Around 33 (11.0%) contacted the female community health volunteer (FCHV), 20 (6.7%) used domestic medicine or ethno- medicine, 13 (4.3%) visited a pharmacy and 9(3.0%) visited a private allopathic clinic when they felt discomfort. Respondents ascribed the cause of the disease to supernatural causes or evil spirits (53.3%), to germs (48.7%), curse of God (83.0%) to sins committed in the past (10.3%), and other causes (5.7%). The respondents usually consulted at first Dhami-Jhakri (43.0%) and Jharphuke (28.3%) when they fell sick. People utilized CAM in order to relieve undesired pain, uneasiness in the body and restore the health condition. The types of alternative medicine utilized by the respondents were Ayurveda 162 (54.0%), jadi-booti 248 (82.7%), homeopathy 94 (31.3%), relaxation 33 (11.0%), and meditation 68 (22.7%) healing touch 55 (18.3%), therapeutic massage 109 (36.3%), acupuncture 126 (42.0%), acupressure 44 (14.7%) Yoga 28 (3.3%) and 10 (3.3%) did not know any practice other than Dhamijhakri. Through the FGD, it was observed that traditional medicine sector was an important source of health care in Solukhumbu. The main reasons for consulting a CAM healer were the proximity, affordable barter system, availability, family pressure and the strong opinion of the community. In conclusion, CAM use especially self-treatment with medicinal plants was found to be a common practice along with modern medicine in a rural setting in Nepal. The study findings emphasized the reality of multiple recourse adopted by health care seekers and their deeply entrenched belief in CAM. Nepal has a very rich tradition in the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various ailments. This may indicate the need for the integration of the modern and CAM systems in terms of evidence-based information sharing. This calls for bringing CAM healers into the mainstream by providing them with proper training, facilities and referral services. The healers can motivate the persons to access modern health care services by placing a Tika of ash (Kharani) prior to referral. A positive interaction between the two systems has to be harnessed to work for the common goal of improving health of the people.

Geo-hydrological hazards induced by Gorkha Earthquake 2015: A Case of Pharak area, Everest Region, Nepal

Nepal experienced disastrous earthquake events in 2015. The first one (magnitude of 7.8) with epicenter in Barpak, Gorkha district, occurred on 25th April 2015, followed by another event (7.3 magnitude) on 12thMay 2015, with epicenter in 19 km south east of Kodari, Sindhupalchok district. Those earthquake events induced different types of geo-hazard and they are widely distributed and caused serious damages and losses. This paper discusses the types of geo-hazards induced by these Gorkha and Sindhupalchok earthquake events and the losses and damages from those events; and the future risk from those geo-hazards in Pharak area covering 305 km2 in Solukhumbu district, Nepal. Satellite images of before and after the events were used to map landslide, debris flow, landslide dam and other geomorphic changes after earthquake. Information on the losses, damages and future risk were collected through focus group discussion, key informants’ interview, observation, and measurement. A total of 79 landslides, 13 rock falls, 5 debris flow and one site of river damming were identified and mapped. The losses and damages included private and public buildings, cultivated land, crops and other infrastructure such as trails, canals for hydropower plant. The losses and damages associated with landslide and debris flow induced by earthquake is comparatively higher than the losses and damages from other geomorphic hazards such as rock fall and landslide dam and landslide dam outburst flood. The risk from those geo-hazards induced by earthquake is also high. Community mobilization with activities of regular monitoring of those hazards, skill development for rescue operation, design and implementation of mitigation measures are some of the efforts necessary for better management of disaster risk.

Bung: A traditional practice of potato cultivation in eastern hills of Nepal

Eastern hill region is one of the high potato producing areas of potato in Nepal. There are many traditional potato production systems existing in the region. Among them, 'Bung' and 'Lhose' are very popular systems. There are some under-proven views of naming to this unique cultivation practice. Field observations, key informants' interview, and group discussion were carried out at three sites of Okhaldhunga and Solukhumbu districts in July 2019 to explore the basic information on the bung system. The results of this investigation revealed that the century-old practice utilized marginal sloppy lands of mountains for cultivation of potatoes. Farmers left land fallow for 4-5 years to grow weeds and herbs. Thereafter, they slashed them with a thin layer of soil, stacked them over winter, burned and mixed with the soil making a raised pit. They planted 15-25 potato seed tubers into these pits depending upon the pit size. No additional fertilizer is added to these pits. No intercultural operations are carried out until harvesting. It was explained that the yield of potato from the bung was significantly higher 15-20 kg) than that of general local practice called lhose system (5-7 kg) from the area equivalent to Bung . Some interventions such as high yielding varieties, easy-to-handle equipment for bung preparation and introduction of fast-growing non-hazardous weeds, etc. were the demands of the farmers to increase profit from the bung system.

Commercialization of Mandarin Orange in Solukhumbu District, Nepal: Input, Production, Storage and Marketing Problem Assessment

With the aim to assess major constraints and opportunities in commercialization along with the study of control measures and apposite services provided by stakeholders, the survey among 75 households from 5 different clusters in major citrus producing Dudhkoshi and Thulung Dudhkoshi regions during 2018 was conducted. The result from the pilot study portrays that – despite the long-term farming experiences in citrus, mandarins were unproductive in their orchards. Lack of technical knowledge, input supply, road and market access regarding commercial citrus farming has been major limiting aspect for orchard management and production. Likewise, condition of mechanical tools and record keeping was found poor from direct observation. 49.33% did not have storage facility for the fruit; problem on post-harvest and marketing was followed by poor transportation facility. The market for mandarin was the local market for 34 respondents where the price per kg was NRs. 77.94 which was significantly higher than the farmgate price (NRs. 49.02) at 5% level of significance. The fruit has invincible quality and taste. The development of collection centers, frequent monitoring and trainings for progressive farmers and input supplies management from government and private sectors are suggested, which can promote the productivity of citrus; thus, farming of mandarin can enhance livelihood and can be sustainable venture for the study area.

New data on the irvinei group of Chydaeus of the Himalaya from Nepal andsouthern Tibet (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Harpalini).

Re-examination of the type series of Chydaeus irvinei (Andrewes, 1930) revealed that this species is based on two different taxa. It is re-described based on the lectotype and two paralectotypes from Gautsa in the Ngamo Chu Valley of southern Tibet between Sikkim and Bhutan. Chydaeus loeffleri (Jedlička, 1966) is treated as distinct species (not a synonym of Ch. irvinei) with two subspecies: the nominotypical one distributed in the Rolwaling Valley in eastern Central Nepal, and Ch. loeffleri tibetanus ssp. n. described on the basis of the paralectotype of Ch. irvinei from the Rongshar Valley in southern Tibet north west of the Rolwaling Himal. A new species Ch. soluensis sp. n., also similar to Ch. irvinei in appearance and genitalia, is described from the Solu Khumbu District of eastern Central Nepal (type locality: Lamjura Danda). In addition, a revised key to all species and subspecies of the irvinei group is provided.

Identifying Paths to Successful Higher Education for Girls in the Solukhumbu District, Nepal

Economic, social, cultural, and geographic barriers exist in rural Nepal that prevent many girls from successfully reaching higher levels of education. This research was conducted with the aim of identifying the enabling environments and support systems that have allowed girls from the rural and mountainous Solukhumbu District of Nepal to successfully reach “college”-level education in class levels 11 and 12, despite the presence of extant barriers to their educational success. Results indicate that 4 primary factors create the foundation of educational success for girls: the motivation and determination of the girl to succeed in education; the support of the girls' families and the commitment of the families to education; the egalitarian treatment of all students at all levels of school by teachers; and the financial and lodging support provided by the Salleri Girls' Hostel for Higher Education, run by a local nongovernmental organization (NGO). Results show success is achieved through financial support programs; family support, both in terms of motivation and encouragement and through reducing girls' domestic and family care responsibilities; increasing awareness of the benefits of education in communities; and support offered by NGO programs. Recommendations for effective future initiatives to support girls' education in the region include the establishment of more hostels for girls, offering financial support to families, and leading community awareness programs about education.

Sustaining Sherpa language and culture in New York

Sherpas moved from their original homeland in Solukhumbu district of Nepal to adjacent mountain districts and later to urban centres such as Kathmandu and Darjeeling over several generations. By the end of the twentieth century, many had also moved permanently to North American and European countries. Now, after Kathmandu in Nepal, the largest concentration of Sherpas can be found in Queens, New York, and the surrounding boroughs. The case of New York Sherpas is unique because for the first time in history, thousands of Sherpas from different parts of the Himalayas are living together and sharing a new home. Earlier, these Sherpas were separated for generations by geographic obstacles, great distances and international boundaries. Although the process of adapting to a new sociocultural environment is not novel, this article argues that the kinds of challenges and opportunities that New York has presented for the Sherpas are different from their experience elsewhere. Sherpas are acutely aware of the risk of losing their language and culture in their new homes in the United States, especially when it comes to transmitting cultural knowledge to the next generation. Many are therefore actively involved in the preservation of their language and culture through community mobilization in the form of kyidugs.1 Based in different cities across the United States, Sherpa kyidugs uniformly emphasize the significance of promoting their language and culture within the community. A shared place of worship and gathering is key to Sherpas’ efforts to preserve and practice their culture, and so the kyidugs recognize the need for a community building, where they can gather to perform religious rituals and festivals, offer language classes or simply gather.