Solitary Play Research Articles

Changes in the play behaviours of preschoolers: A short-term longitudinal investigation.

Over the years, age differences in the quality of social and cognitive play behaviours of young children have been reported. For example, Rubin, Watson, and Jambor (197X) indicated that preschoolers engage in significantly more unoccupied, onlooker, and solitary play and in less group (i.e., associative or cooperative) play than kindergarten children. Kindergarten children have also been found to display significantly more dramatic and less functional play than preschoolers. When the cognitive play categories of Smilansky (1968) are nested within the social play categories of Parten (1932), preschoolers have been found to engage in significantly more solitary-functional and parallel-functional, and in less parallel-constructive, parallel-dramatic, and group-dramatic, activity than kindergarten children (Rubin et al., 1978). Both Parten and Smilansky believed that their respective conceptions of play represented sequential, developmental hierarchies and that, over the course of time, children are expected to exhibit increasingly mature modes of behaviour. For example, at one time period a child might be involved in a large amount of parallel play which, with experience and social-cognitive growth, might diminish only to be replaced by group activities. Earlier reports using the nested Parten-Smilansky play scale were based on crosssectional data, thereby negating the possibility of examining developmental changes in play behaviours over time. Moreover, there have been few studies that have employed either the Parten or the Smilansky categories in a longitudinal fashion. Recently Smith (1978), in a study of 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds, found an increase in group play and a decrease in solitary play over a 9-month period, thereby providing some support for the sequential development of social play. Unfortunately, longitudinal data concerning the Smilansky categories are non-exislenl. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine changes in children's observed play behaviours over four time periods within a given school year. It was expected that changes in play over time would take place in progressive directions

Experience and the Development of Intelligence in Young Children at Home and in Day Care

This study examined the relationship between the antecedent everyday experiences of middle-class children in middle-class day-care centers and their intellectual development assessed by the Binet and tests of Spatial Abilities and Receptive Language at age 3. As in the previous study of children in home care, certain types of experiences were hypothesized in advance to be intellectually valuable in that they seemed to provide the clearest opportunities for the child to learn the skills required for successful test performance. The study demonstrated that these experiences were indeed uniquely intellectually valuable in that (apart from preparatory, planful activities) they comprised the only category of everyday experiences that predicted test scores. The research then compared the predictive power of various combinations of sources and topics of intellectual experiences. As expected from the home-care results, language-mastery experiences provided by caregivers when the child was 18--33 months old were clearly the most valuable type of intellectual experiences in predicting test scores at age 3. This subset of intellectual experiences stood out as the strongest predictor of IQ in day care. Performance on the Spatial Abilities and Receptive Language tests was also significantly predicted by language-mastery experiences but here, in contrast to IQ, other types of interactive experiences in which the child played a more prominent role vis-à-vis the caregiver and also experiences which focused on the acquisition of skills other than language were beneficial. The critical importance of intellectually stimulating interaction with caregivers was highlighted by the finding that, of the six combinations of sources and topics of intellectual experiences that proved predictive of test scores, four referred to experiences occurring in interactive situations in which the child are caregiver jointly created the intellectual experiences or in which the caregiver unilaterally structured the experiences for the child. By comparison, intellectual experiences that the child generated for himself in solitary play explained little of the variance in test performance. In sum, this study strongly suggested that, by reciprocally or unilaterally providing various forms of intellectual stimulation and especially experiences designed to foster the mastery of language, caregivers may play a essential, --at least insofar as the 3-year-old's intellectual competence is validly assessed by measures like IQ. Why teachers provided more of this stimulation to some children than others was not clear. Their differential treatment seems to have been guided in part by perceptions of individual intellectual development and especially language competence, but, as in the home-care study, their behavior also seems to have been affected by many other unmeasured factors.

Sex Differences in Parent-Child Interaction Styles during a Free-Play Session

TAUBER, MARGARET A. Sex Differences in Parent-Child Interaction Styles during a Free-Play Session. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1979, 50, 981-988. During the course of a longitudinal study, 145 children (average age 8%) were videotaped playing with a parent, most often the mother. Data coded from the videotapes were factor analyzed separately for parent and child, leading to 4 parent factors: sociable play, active play, buoyant support, and abrasive talk; and 4 child factors: active play, solitary play, buoyant mood, and physical contact seeking. Parents of girls were more likely to engage in sociable play, parents of boys in active play. Sex-of-parent differences were found to be related to child play style. For example, the daughters of supportive mothers engaged in physical contact-seeking behavior, while the daughters of supportive fathers avoided such physical bids. In general, the relationships between mother-child behaviors were similar regardless of the sex of the child being played with, while fathers' behavior related quite differently to girls' and boys' behavior. For example, fathers were supportive of active play in boys but withheld support from girls who engaged in active play. Although these results are no more than tentative, since so few fathers attended the session, they indicate that fathers can play an important part in determining sex differences in children's play styles.

Cyclic proceptivity in a captive female orang-utan ( Pongo Pygmaeus Abelii)

An adult male—female pair of orang-utans was observed for a 3-month period, commencing with the introduction of the animals to each other. After approximately 2 weeks, the female began to show proceptive behaviors towards the male. Two other proceptive periods were observed, occuring from 26 to 30 days apart, and lasting for 4–6 days. These female-initiated periods of sexual activity began with increased locomotor activity, solitary play, proximity to the male, following the male, and social grooming. The peak periods of proceptive behaviour included hand—genital contact, mouth—genital contact, rolling the male onto his back, both dorso-ventral and ventro-ventral mounting, and pelvic thrusting. Although hormonal levels could not be assessed in this study, it is believed that these peaks coincided with ovulation. In previous reports, the presence of proceptive behaviors was perhaps over-shadowed by highly aggressive sexual behavior on the part of male orang-utans. The visibility of proceptivity in this study is attributed to the large cage which allowed the female to escape the male's advances, enabled distance between the animals when they preferred it, and continuous exposure of the orangs to each other. This female orang-utan behavior was compared to the female sexual behaviours of the other great ape species — the chimpanzee and the gorilla.

The Interactions of Normal and Hyperactive Children with Their Mothers in Free Play and Structured Tasks

Groups of 20 normal and 20 hyperactive boys ranging in age from 6 to 12 years were observed interacting with their mothers in 15-min free-play and 15-min structured-task situations. Using a 15-sec interval coding procedure, 1 observer recorded the mother's response to specific antecedent behaviors of the child while a second observer recorded the child's response to specific behaviors of the mother. Hyperactive boys proved more active, less compliant, and less likely to remain on task than nonhyperactive peers. Mothers of hyperactive boys were less likely to respond positively to the child's social interactions, solitary play activities, or compliant on-task behavior. In addition, mothers of hyperactive boys imposed more structure and control on the child's play, social interactions, and task-oriented activities. It is suggested that the controlling intrusive style observed among the mothers of hyperactive boys, while initially a response to the child's overactive, impulsive, inattentive style, may further contribute to the child's behavioral difficulties.

A longitudinal study of social participation in preschool children: Solitary and parallel play reexamined.

A longitudinal study of social participation in preschool children: Solitary and parallel play reexamined.

Free Play Behaviors in Middle- and Lower-Class Preschoolers: Parten and Piaget Revisited

and Lower-Class Preschoolers: Parten and Piaget Revisited. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1976, 47, 414-419. 24middle-class and 16 lower-class preschoolers were observed during free play period on 30 consecutiveschool days. The behaviors of the children were coded by cotnbining the social play categories of Partenand the cognitive play schemes of Sniilansky. The results indicated that middle-class preschoolers engagedin significantly less parallel and functional play, and significantly more associative, cooperative, andconstructive play than did their lower-class age mates. Moreover, examination of the combined Parten-Smilansky play scale revealed that middle-class children emitted significantly more associative-constructive and cooperative-dramatic play and significantly less solitary-functional and parallel-functionalplay than lower-class preschoolers. Results also showed that males exhibited significantly more dramatic,solitary functional, and associative-dramatic, and less constructive, solitary-constructive, and parallel-constructive play than their female counterparts. It was suggested that future studies incorporate both theParten and the Smilansky categories of play in investigating the behaviors of preschoolers in a wide varietyof settings.Early observational investigations of chil-dren's free play preferences often focused uponthe formulation of social play hierarchies. Thus, ina now classic study, Parten (1932) discovered thatsocial participation among preschoolers increasedwith the child's age. Parten defined six sequentialsocial participation categories: unoccupied be-havior, solitary play, onlooker behavior, parallelplay, associative play, and cooperative play. Pre-schoolers' modal play preference from 2 to 2%years was solitary play, from 2V4 to 3V4 years wasparallel play, and frorii 3V4 to 4V4 years was associa-tive play.While Parten's social play hierarchy has gen-erally gained acceptance as a measure of thematurity of early peer interaction, it is noteworthythat in the 40 years following her initial investiga-tion, few researchers have attempted to eitherreplicate or extend her original findings. The onerecent replication study (Barnes 1971) revealedthat 3- and 4-year-olds displayed significantlymore unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker activityand significantly less associative and cooperativeplay than Parten found in her original sample.Thus, Barnes has suggested that considerable cau-tion be exercised in using Parten's data in a norma-tive fashion.concerning children's play behaviors stemmedfrom Piaget's (1962) classification of three succes-sive stages according to the degree to which playremains purely sensorimotor or has some bearingon thought itself. Smilansky (1968) elaboratedupon the original Piaget categories and labeledthem as follows: (a) functional play—simple re-petitive muscle movements with or without ob-jects; (b) constructive play—manipulation of ob-jects to construct or to create something; (c)dramatic play—the substitution of an imaginarysituation to satisfy the child's personal wishes andneeds; and (d)games with rules—the acceptance ofprearranged rules and the adjustment to theserules. The four types of play are thought of asdeveloping in a relatively fixed sequence withfunctional play appearing ontogenetically first ininfancy and games with rules last (during concreteoperations). In one recent study, Rubin and Ma-ioni (1975) found that preschoolers engage in sig-nificantly more functional and constructive playthan in either dramatic play or games with rules.Moreover, in support of their belief that play pref-erences are related to cognitive competence, theincidence of dramatic play was found to be posi-tively correlated with spatial relational and clas-sification skills. A negative correlation was foundbetween functional play and the same cognitiveA second major early source of information measures.We would like to express our appreciation to the teachers at the University of Waterloo EarlyChildhood Education Centre for their kind cooperation. We would also like to thank Becky Hansen for herassistance in the data analysis. Requests for reprints should be sent to Kenneth H. Rubin, Department ofPsychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario.

An investigation of individual, age and sexual differences in the play of Rattus norvegicus (Mammalia: Rodentia)

Eight litters of Rattus norvegicus of the PVG/C hooded strain were observed in order to investigate the roles of individuality, sexuality and age in playful behaviour.Three measures of social play, namely, initiations, numbers of play bouts and numbers of playful elements performed were all found to be positively correlated. The incidence of social and solitary play were also positively correlated so that a concept of “playfulness” appeared to be justifiable. Playfulness showed no correlation with the general level of non‐playful locomotor activity.Male rats were more playful than females but only minor sex‐related differences were found to occur in the sequential organisation of play.Older rats showed longer play bouts and a higher degree of temporal organisation. Considerable individual differences in playfulness were recorded and in single sex litters playful rats were found to play together.The majority of opponents, in playfighting, alternated between the roles of attacker and defender.

The Merits of Solitary Play

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Additional informationNotes on contributorsRobert D. StromLet us not overlook the values of self-encounters. Fascinating feedback from research on creative adults.Robert Strom, Professor of Psychology at Arizona State University, College of Education, Tempe, Arizona, recently served as Visiting Professor of Educational Psychology, Canberra College of Advanced Education, Canberra City, Australia.

Solitary play of the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus)

A description of the different forms of solitary play behavior in the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) is presented here. These play activities are subdivided into two main groups: non-directed and object-directed. In the first are included (a) tumbles on the ground; (b) leaps and feats of skill in trees; (c) body shaking while suspended by the feet, and (d) running. In the second the motor patterns can be (a) gnawing, eating and caching food; (b) rubbing against an object; (c) acrobatic use of an object; (d) play-fighting with objects, and (e) chasing and play-fighting with the tail. The comparison of the solitary play behavior of the red squirrel with that of some other sciurids shows that this behavior seems to be almost non-existent in the social species studied so far and is subject to variation with age at the intraspecific level. It is suggested that a certain relation exists between the degree of sociability and the relative proportion of solitary and social play activities.

An investigation of playful behaviour in Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus (Mammalia)

The playful behaviour of laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus) was investigated in litters of five individuals with the mother present; parallel observations were made on mice (Mus musculus). Seven mixed litters containing four young rats and a young mouse fostered at birth were also observed.Solitary play was recorded in both species and took a similar form but social play was only observed in rats. In rats, solitary play frequently preceeded social play.The behavioural elements involved in the social play of Rattus norvegicus were described, and the majority of these were the playful equivalent of adult agonistic behaviour elements. These social play elements were found to be organized into definite sequences which differed from those of adult aggression. Each behavioural element was found to act as a social releaser.Young mice did not respond playfully to social play from a rat litter mate; mice were less attractive to rats as playmates in comparison with fellow rats.

The development of peer-mate relationships in Japanese macaque infants

The play behavior of Japanese macaque infants was studied for 6 months at Arashiyama, Japan. Three types of play were identified. The first (solitary play) was observed in five to 12-week old infants. The second type of play (parallel play) was observed in infants from 12 to 21 weeks old. After the 12th week, the third type of play (associate play) was seen. At this point the infants seldom played without partners. It is in associate play that dominant and submissive behavior may be seen, and from which dominance relations may be assumed. It is said that the rank of a 12 week-old infant parallels that of its mother.

Solitary play: Some functional reconsiderations.

Solitary play: Some functional reconsiderations.

Social and solitary play in a colony of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops).

This study describes and defines play in a laboratory colony of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Play is divided into 26 units of behavior and the frequencies of these behaviors are recorded. Analysis shows that sex, age, and dominance have effects on some play behaviors. The play behavior of each age/sex group within the colony is described both quantitatively and qualitatively. Adult females are characterized by reinforcement of the play of immature monkeys, adult males by rough play with older male juveniles, four-year-old females and three-year-old males by stimulation of play in young infants, and males in general by a preference to play within their peer group. It is suggested that modified repetition of behaviors, diversified interactions, and innovative behaviors, are important qualities of play, and are essential to the adaptive plasticity of behavior in primates.

EFFECTS OF ADULT AND PEER OBSERVERS ON BOYS' AND GIRLS' RESPONSES TO AN AGGRESSIVE MODEL

MARTIN, MARIAN F.; GELFAND, DONNA M.; and HARTMANN, DONALD P. Effects of Adult and Peer Observers on Boys' and Girls' Responses to an Aggressive Model. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1971, 42, 1271-1275. 100 children 5-7 years old individually observed a model depicting a unique sequence of aggressive behavior. Subsequent ratings of the children's imitative and total aggressive responding during solitary free play or with an observer present indicated that: (1) boys displayed more aggressive behavior than did girls in all observer conditions; (2) peer observers facilitated aggressive responding; and (3) subjects' aggressive responding increased from beginning to end of the free play session when a permissive adult was present.

EFFECTS OF SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT ON ISOLATE BEHAVIOR OF A NURSERY SCHOOL CHILD.

A preschool girl who exhibited a low rate of social interaction with her peers was helped to achieve sustained play relations through systematic use of behavior principles. A positive reinforcer, teacher attention, was given consequent upon interaction with another child and withheld consequent upon solitary play or attempted interaction solely with an adult. Interaction with children rose markedly; oneto-one interactions with adults decreased. Reversal of procedures depressed child-child interaction and increased interaction solely with adults; reinstatement of original procedures restored peer interaction. As social behavior with peers became firmly established, reinforcement under both contingencies was presented on an increasingly intermittent schedule. Later checks indicated that adequate social play behavior was maintained through the rest of the school year.

Social participation among pre-school children.

The social participation of 40 nursery-school children was analyzed. The spontaneous play groups occurring during the free-play hour were observed by a one-minute sampling and the social behavior of each child was recorded. Social participation was classified under: unoccupied; solitary play; onlook