Solidity Programming Language Research Articles

Blockchain-Based Car Rental Platform

Abstract: Carpooling has seen a significant upsurge in popularity in recent years since it relieves commuters of the burden of driving a car and later spares them from the mad dash to locate a parking space. The industry now uses centralised database servers, which puts the system at risk of hacking, causes data leaks, and undermines security within the system. Additionally, there is a chance that the owner will misuse the data in a centralised system. Since the newly developed Blockchain technology provides complete anonymity and database transparency, data security and traceability may be guaranteed across the entire server. The goal of the suggested solution is to create and implement a blockchain-based, smart contract-based peer-to-peer vehicle sharing system. The Solidity programming language is utilised to carry out the smart contracts. Ethereum blockchain is used in the ecosystem's construction. Eliminating the middleman would result in a peer-to- peer (P2P) car-sharing programme, which would reflect decreased costs and exposure to data theft.

Bitcoin in Blockchain Technology and Ethereum In Smart Contracts

Abstract: Blockchain is one of the most trending technologies which plays a major role in online transactions using cryptocurrencies. The blockchain is a chain of blocks that consists of allthe transactions up to the size of 1MB. This blockchain has many properties such as decentralization, immutability, transparency, and audibility, making transactions more secure and tamper-proof. It is tamper-proof because there is no possibility to tampera block as every block in the blockchain has the hash of the previous block. And among cryptocurrencies, bitcoin is one ofthe most popular... In fact, blockchain was introduced to theworld because of bitcoins. Apart from cryptocurrency, blockchain technology can be used in financial, NYC, and social services, risk management, food, healthcare facilities, and so on. Numerous studies have examined the potential that blockchain offers inmultiple application sectors, as well as the benefits and different kinds of blockchain. This paper presents a comparative studyof bitcoins in blockchain technology and the workflow of thebitcoin, compares bitcoin and Ethereum, and provides the use of smart contracts in this emerging technology. The methodology considered for this research is the Ethereum blockchain in smart contracts using a solidity programming language.

Reliable and Sustainable Product Evaluation Management System Based on Blockchain

To facilitate the consumers’ online shopping, it is very necessary to build a reliable and sustainable product evaluation management (PEM) system to store, secure, and retrieve the evaluation data of products. To this end, we propose a novel PEM system based on blockchain technologies. In this PEM system, the evaluation data of products including evaluation scores and comments are stored in the interplanetary file system (IPFS), and then the data hash addresses are returned and stored on the blockchain. Then, the retrieval of evaluation data is implemented by designing and deploying smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain. Since it is almost impossible to change any data stored in blockchain and IPFS, the proposed PEM system can protect the comment data from intentional or unintentional modifications. Moreover, the proposed PEM system allows users to efficiently and reliably retrieve the relevant evaluation data of a certain product by a given query keyword with the increase of data stored on the blockchain. In addition, to achieve high sustainability, the proposed system also contains an economic incentive mechanism, which is beneficial to form a virtuous circle in online shopping. The proposed system is simulated on the popular blockchain platform, i.e., Ethereum with Solidity programming language. The experimental results and analysis demonstrate that the proposed PEM system achieves desirable usability, reliability, and sustainability.

DESIGNING AND EVALUATING DL-MODEL FOR VULNERABILITY DETECTION IN SMART CONTRACTS

Task features. Smart-contracts are programs that are stored in a distributed registry and execute code written in them in response to transactions addressed to them. Such smart- contracts are written in the Solidity programming language, which has a specific structure and syntax. The language was developed for the Ethereum platform. Having a specific structure, such languages are prone to certain vulnerabilities, the use of which can lead to large financial losses. Task statement. In this paper, a Deep Learning (DL) model is used to detect the vulnerabilities. Using the chosen approach and a properly specified input data structure, it is possible to detect complex dependencies between various program variables that contain vulnerabilities and bugs. Research results. Using well-defined experiments, this approach was investigated to better understand the model and improve its performance. The developed model classified vulnerabilities at the string level, using the Solidity corpus of smart-contracts as input data. The application of the DL model allows vulnerabilities of varying complexity to be identified in smart-contracts. Conclusions. Thus, the pipeline developed by us can capture more internal code information than other models. Information from software tokens, although semantically incapable of capturing vulnerabilities, increases the accuracy of models. The interpretability of the model has been added through the use of the attention mechanism. Operator accounting has shown significant performance improvements.

NFT-Vehicle: A Blockchain-Based Tokenization Architecture to Register Transactions over a Vehicle’s Life Cycle

The sale of second-hand vehicles is a popular trade worldwide, and vehicle fraud is currently a common issue, mainly because buyers can lack a complete view of the historical transactions related to their new acquisition. This work presents a distributed architecture for stakeholders to register transactions over a vehicle’s life cycle in a blockchain network. The architecture involves a non-fungible token (NFT) linked to a physical motorized vehicle after a tokenization process, which denote as the NFT-Vehicle. The NFT-Vehicle is a hierarchical smart contract designed using an object-oriented paradigm and a modified version of the ERC721 standard. Every stakeholder engages with the NFT-Vehicle through distinct methods embedded within a smart contract. These methods represent internal protocols meticulously formulated and validated based on a finite-state machine (FSM) model. We implemented our design as a proof of concept using a platform based on Ethereum and a smart contract in the Solidity programming language. We carried out two types of proof: (a) validations, following the FSM model to ensure that the smart contract remained in a consistent state, and (b) proofs, to achieve certainty regarding the amount of ETH that could be spent in the life cycle of a vehicle. The results of the tests showed that the total transaction cost for each car throughout its life cycle did not represent an excessive cost considering the advantages that the system could offer to prevent fraud.

Pub-SubMCS: A privacy-preserving publish–subscribe and blockchain-based mobile crowdsensing framework

This paper proposes a privacy-preserving publish–subscribe-based decentralized framework for MCS systems named “Pub-SubMCS”. The framework allows data sharing, where requesters can subscribe to an existing data request (task) if their requirements match. Otherwise, they can create a new task with specific requirements on considered parameters. Incorporating the publish–subscribe (pub–sub) service model in a decentralized MCS system saves system entities’ sensing and computing resources and the cost of acquiring the data by the requesters. However, the pub–sub service model makes the curse of sensing issues more severe. Pub-SubMCS handles the curse of sensing issues by performing access control using smart contracts, which impose restrictions on data collectors (workers) to publish the data and identify and penalize the malicious workers early. To ensure data privacy and validation simultaneously over blockchain, we perform data transformation enabling the validation algorithm to run over transformed data and thus enhancing trust among the system entities. In particular, we use the normalization technique to transform data and the Pearson correlation coefficient measure to compare the similarity in the collected sensor data. Pub-SubMCS is implemented on the Ethereum blockchain, and solidity programming language is used to create smart contracts. The security analysis and experiment results show the proposed system’s scalability, usability, and feasibility. We also demonstrate the effectiveness of the publish–subscribe model against the requester–worker model.

Survey on Land Registration System Using Blockchain Technology

Blockchain technology enables programmers to check, save, the contents of a data sheet (a transaction ledger) distance(a sale tally) by multiple users. Blockchain technology gives us considerable benefits and impulses to diligence in terms of enabling better services. Land administration systems are of great significance for a large number of stakeholders. The result is presented in a form of a smart contract which is written in Solidity programming language that can cover indeed those more specific use cases in land administration systems similar as sharing of ownership, transferring part of ownership, splitting or coupling of real estate, and limiting the possibility of trading a real estate. The results of this review study aim to support professionals, interpreters, and stakeholders who wish to implement and manage metamorphosis systems related to blockchain in their sectors. Also, helping these possible blockchain handlers to understand the implied factors associated with blockchain would be useful for the decision-making processes of their associations.

IoT Data Sharing Platform in Web 3.0 Using Blockchain Technology

As Internet of Things (IoT)-based systems become more prevalent in the era of data-driven intelligence, they are prone to some unprecedented challenges in terms of data security and systems scalability in an era of context-sensitive data. The current advances in IoT-driven data sensing and sharing rely on third-party sources of information (TTPs) that gather data from one party, then transmit it to the other. As a result of TTPs’ involvement, such IoT systems suffer from many issues including but not limited to security, transparency, trust, and immutability as a result of the involvement of the company. Moreover, a multitude of technical impediments, such as the computation and storage poverty of IoTs, privacy concerns, and energy efficiency, enhances the challenges for IoTs. To address these issues of IoT security, we propose a blockchain-enabled open IoT data-sharing framework based on the potential of the interplanetary file system (IPFS). We have used a case study-based approach to evaluate the proposed solution. It is submitted that the proposed scenario is implemented by building smart contracts in Solidity and deploying them on the local Ethereum test network, using the Solidity programming language. With the implementation of smart contracts on the blockchain for access roles in IoT data sensing, the proposed solution advocates for a blockchain-based approach to data security for IoT systems that makes use of smart contracts for access roles.

Ride Sharing with Privacy, Trust and Fair Payment by using Blockchain

Abstract: The idea of sharing economy provides rise to distinctive concepts and develops innovative businesses. This text aims to relate the good town concept by introducing the good transport system and explores the opportunities of adopting blockchain technology in ridesharing services. Blockchain technology could be a distributed, suburbanized public ledger that allows peer-topeer transactions in a very secure means with no third party. This proposes a blockchain-based framework from the prevailing centralized framework for a ride-sharing service and implements a similar as a suburbanized application (DApp) primarily based on good contracts on Ethereum Blockchain. exploitation good contracts facilitate the users with automated transactions, removes the intermediaries, and allows varied activities to be carried out safely and firmly. Implementation of good contracts is finished exploitation of the Solidity programming language. This DApp uses the min matching algorithmic program to match riders requesting rideshare to avoid wasting total travel distance. With the overwhelming growth in the usage of crypto currencies, good contracts usage in applications as projected during this paper will rework the sharing economy.

Ethereum Blockchain using AES-CMAC

Managing and storing data are crucial tasks for any industry, since they require accurate and secure record-keeping. Using blockchain technology has significantly increased recently due to its capability to address some of the challenges that come with traditional data storage and management systems. In this paper, we will explore the use of Ethereum smart contracts powered by the Solidity programming language using AES-CMAC.

Blockchain Mobile Wallet with Secure Offline Transactions

There has been an increase in the adoption of mobile payment systems worldwide in the past few years. However, poor Internet connection in rural regions continues to be an obstacle to the widespread use of such technologies. On top of that, there are significant problems with the currently available offline wallets; for instance, the payee cannot verify the number of coins received without access to the Internet. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that some existing systems are susceptible to false token generation, and some do not even permit the user to divide the offline token into smaller portions to be used as change. This paper proposes a blockchain-based wallet system that provides a secure mobile payment service even if a user cannot access a reliable Internet connection. Our approach relies on Bluetooth and digital signatures to establish and build a trust connection between the parties. The proposed solution overcomes the main limitations of existing systems that use offline transactions, such as the generation of fake offline tokens and the indivisibility of offline tokens. The user buys Offline Tokens (OTs) from a server called an Offline Token Manager (OTM) to use them later to perform offline transactions. Each mobile device must store a single, signed offline token transaction to prevent fake tokens. On the other hand, all offline transactions will be kept as a history in a particular local database. Finally, when the receiver becomes online, it will send a convert request to the OTM to change the value of the OTs to the appropriate amount in real coins. This step requires a connection to the Internet. To evaluate the effectiveness of the system, the Solidity programming language was used to develop a smart contract on the Ethereum blockchain with a backend application programming interface (API) and an android mobile application. The proposed method has an advantage over other prominent wallets.

The proposal of new Ethereum request for comments for supporting fractional ownership of non-fungible tokens

During the last couple of years, non-fungible tokens became the most prominent implementation of blockchain technology apart from cryptocurrencies. This is mainly due to their recent association with digital art, but the application of non-fungible tokens has been in the focus of researchers since the appearance of Blockchain 2.0. It was usually tightly coupled with the research on possible applications of blockchain technology in some real-life applications, such as land administration, healthcare, or supply chain management. Since the initial release of the Ethereum blockchain in 2015, until 2022, more than 44 million smart contracts have been created, and out of those that are still active, more than 70% are based on some prominent templates. In the Ethereum blockchain, the creation of nonfungible tokens is usually based on Ethereum Request for Comments 721. In this paper, the authors are proposing the creation of a new standard that would support fractional ownership of non-fungible tokens. Fractional ownership is necessary so non-fungible tokens and blockchain technology could be applied to an even wider number of use cases. This paper also presents an example of a possible implementation of the newly proposed standard in the Solidity programming language.

Mobile-Chain: Secure blockchain based decentralized authentication system for global roaming in mobility networks

Designing a secure and efficient authentication protocol is crucial and challenging in the mobility network. Due to the seamless roaming of mobile users over multiple foreign agents and the broadcast nature of the communication channel, the mobile networks are often exposed to several network attacks. To achieve perfect authentication and secure communication among mobility entities like MU (Mobile User), FA (Foreign Agent) and HA (Home Agent), the researchers have proposed numerous authentication protocols in the past. However, the existing protocols for the mobility environments are insufficient to address the fundamental security concerns and an adversary can impersonate the mobile user at anytime. Thus, we propose Mobile-Chain, a secure blockchain-based authentication system for mobility environments. The proposed Mobile-Chain is designed to protect user privacy and guarantees provable security like authentication, anonymity, untraceability, confidentiality, data integrity, and decentralization. The implementation of the security framework has been done on the ethereum blockchain platform using smart contracts written in a solidity programming language. The security analysis reveals that Mobile-Chain is robust against various security threats to which mobility networks are vulnerable. Besides, the authentication framework has been measured through a formal security verification tool known as Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocol and Application (AVISPA). Notably, the performance evaluation of the proposed protocol proves that it maintains performance gain, computationally efficient, and implementable in resource-limited wireless and mobility environments.

Decentralized smart contract software service using ETHEREUM blockchain non-fungible tokens

The decentralized technologies of the Ethereum blockchain were analyzed, based on the principles of which a decentralized software service solution was proposed using a smart contract implemented in the specialized Solidity programming language. This contract acts as one of the elements of the server-client application and is the server part for processing methods of interaction with the Ethereum blockchain. The methods include a set of various functions, including for interacting with a collection of non-fungible tokens. The metadata that describes the digital product (non-fungible tokens) is directly linked to the blockchain and resides in a decentralized repository for its most reliable and long-lasting existence. The Ethereum blockchain, in addition to development tools, provides stable support for developers and users thanks to the popular decentralization paradigm, and the relevance and constant development of technologies lead to user interest in products created on their basis. Non- fungible tokens can be used as a cryptocurrency unit, and the decentralized application itself as a platform for collecting funds for a specific purpose. The methods of creating decentralized software services using smart contracts of non-fungible tokens were studied. The selection of the main nodes of the decentralized application is substantiated. A detailed functional diagram of the operation of the basic smart contract methods is proposed together with a diagram that describes all the functional nodes of the decentralized application in general. The results of the interaction of the client part of the software service with the smart contract of the Ethereum blockchain are also demonstrated.

A study of inline assembly in solidity smart contracts

The Solidity programming language is the most widely used language for smart contract development. Improving smart contracts’ correctness, security, and performance has been the driving force for research in vulnerability detection, program analysis, and compiler techniques for Solidity. Similar to system-level languages such as C, Solidity enables the embedding of low-level code in programs, in the form of inline assembly code. Developers use inline assembly for low-level optimizations, extending the Solidity language through libraries, and using blockchain-specific opcodes only available through inline assembly. Nevertheless, inline assembly fragments are not well understood by an average developer and can introduce security threats as well as affect the optimizations that can be applied to programs by the compiler; it also significantly limits the effectiveness of source code static analyzers that operate on the Solidity level. A better understanding of how inline assembly is used in practice could in turn increase the performance, security, and support for inline assembly in Solidity. This paper presents a large-scale quantitative study of the use of inline assembly in 6.8M smart contracts deployed on the Ethereum blockchain. We find that 23% of the analyzed smart contracts contain inline assembly code, and that the use of inline assembly has become more widespread over time. We further performed a manual qualitative analysis for identifying usage patterns of inline assembly in Solidity smart contracts. Our findings are intended to help practitioners understand when they should use inline assembly and guide developers of Solidity tools in prioritizing which parts of inline assembly to implement first. Finally, the insights of this study could be used to enhance the Solidity language, improve the Solidity compiler, and to open up new research directions by driving future researchers to build appropriate methods and techniques for replacing inline assembly in Solidity programs when there is no real necessity to use it.

Towards a Learner-Managed Education Credentialing System Based on Blockchain

Traditionally, a learner's education credentials are maintained by each educational institution. When individuals need to prove their education, they rely on their educational institutions to certify their education and learning records. This paper proposes a decentralized, learner-managed education credentialing system based on blockchain, where the learners' credentials are issued once, stored in a distributed system, and the learners have full control over how and who can access their credentials. The authors present the procedures for credential issuance, selective disclosure of an individual's credentials chosen by each learner, and credential verification by a third party. A proof-of-concept smart contract system has been developed to demonstrate the functionality of the proposed framework. The smart contracts are programmed using the Solidity programming language and tested on the Remix IDE. The authors present this simulation of smart contracts to handle entity registration, credential information storage, credential verification, and educational financial transactions.

Blockchain technology: a troubleshooter for blood cold chains

PurposeBlood cold chain (BCC) represents a system for preserving the blood during its journey from the donor to the ultimate transfusion site. Existing BCCs have many drawbacks related to information transparency and information security. Secured and real-time information sharing in BCC can bring several benefits. The purpose of this paper is to summarise the issues in typical BCCs and to explore the scope of blockchain in the management of BCCs.Design/methodology/approachIssues in the existing BCCs are identified through a narrative review. To explain the potential of blockchain in mitigating these issues, a blockchain-based traceability solution is demonstrated with respect to a particular BCC scenario. The BCC management system discussed in this study makes use of the Ethereum blockchain’s smart contract feature and internet of things (IoT) technology. The smart contract is written in the solidity programming language and tested and validated using the Remix integrated development environment.FindingsBCCs are concerned with several issues both from technical and non-technical perspectives. Blockchain technology is capable of troubleshooting the issues in the existing BCCs. Combining blockchain and IoT technology enables real-time information sharing among the entities. The demonstration presented in this work depicts how the blockchain-based smart contract can support operations in a typical BCC.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper explores the scope of blockchain in BCCs through a demonstration. To get insights into its technical and economical feasibilities, further investigations are needed.Originality/valueBlockchain-based traceability system presented in this work can be adopted in BCCs to ensure the quality of blood or blood products. Blockchain-based smart contracts can aid the BCCs to achieve a proper balance between blood shortage and outdating.

Optimization and Evaluation of Authentication System using Blockchain Technology

User data security innovation is a particular concern in protecting one's privacy rights, which is one of the serious violations when an attacker can bypass the user authentication so that it looks like something legitimate and becomes legal. Based on these issues, the research aims at optimizing and evaluating the blockchain-based authentication systems to minimize data leakage, manipulate the data, and modify the data. Blockchain is one of the innovations that can solve this problem. Data or transactions in the blockchain are saved in hash form to make it difficult for hackers to break into them. The Blockchain implementation uses the Solidity programming language to build smart contracts and other tools such as MetaMask, Ganache, and Truffle. The Network Forensics Development Life Cycle (NFLDC) is used as a framework with the following five stages: Initiation, Acquisition, Implementation, Operation, and Disposition. Based on the research conducted, the attack strategy against blockchain-based systems consists of several scenarios covering the Burp Suite, XSS, SQL Injection, and DoS. The results show that the percentage of authentication optimization reaches a value of 90.1%, and 8.9% is the percentage for evaluating systems such as the possibility of cyberattack. Based on these results, this research has achieved its goals and may assist in further research. Doi: 10.28991/esj-2021-SP1-015 Full Text: PDF

A Blockchain-based Model for Securing IoT Transactions in a Healthcare Environment

A blockchain is a data structure that is implemented as a distrusted database or digital ledger. The transactions are saved to a block of transactions that is attached in turn to the blockchain after the verification process, in which each block in the chain contains a hash signature of the previous block in addition to the hash signature of the block itself. The blocks on the blockchain are chained as an immutable list using the proof-of-work procedure, where there is no way to alter or delete an attached block due to the strict security policy used for structuring the chain of blocks. Each node holds a copy of the blockchain in which the miners take the responsibility of verifying and attaching blocks to the blockchain. The Ethereum blockchain introduced the smart contract which holds logic to be processed once the contract is established. These smart contracts are developed via the Solidity programming language. This proposed paper exploits the Ethereum blockchain along with smart contracts as the base technology for implementing the proposed blockchain-based model. The paper aims to develop a multilayered blockchain-based model, in which the blockchain model is set up on a private blockchain Ethereum network where the nodes share the electronic medical records (EMR) among the P2P (peer-to-peer) network that will be used to secure the IoT medical transactions. Solidity smart contract, introduced by Ethereum, is deployed to handle the EMR “open-query-transfer” operations on the private network, whereas the miners are responsible to validate the transactions. Finally, the research conducts a performance analysis of the Ethereum network using the Ethereum Caliper, considering several performance factors, which are: Maximum Latency, Minimum Latency, Average Latency, and Throughput.

Secured Insurance Framework Using Blockchain and Smart Contract

Traditional insurance policy settlement is a manual process that is never hassle-free. There are many issues, such as hidden conditions from the insurer or fraud claims by the insured, making the settlement process rough. This process also consumes a significant amount of time that makes the process very inefficient. This whole scenario can be disrupted by the implementation of blockchain and smart contracts in insurance. Blockchain and innovative contract technology can provide immutable data storage, security, transparency, authenticity, and security while any transaction process is triggered. With the implementation of blockchain, the whole insurance process, from authentication to claim settlement, can be done with more transparency and security. A blockchain is a virtual chain of data blocks that is a decentralized technology. Any transaction or change in the blocks is done after the decentralized validator entity, not a single person. The smart contract is a unique facility stored on the blockchain that gets executed when the predetermined conditions are met. This paper presents a framework where smart contracts are used for insurance contracts and stored on blockchain. In the case of a claim, if all the predetermined conditions are met, the transaction happens; otherwise, it is discarded. The conditions are immutable. That means there is scope for alteration from either side. This blockchain and intelligent contract-based framework are hosted on a private Ethereum network. The Solidity programming language is used to create smart contracts. The framework uses the Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus algorithm to validate the transactions. In the case of any faulty transaction request, the consensus algorithm acts according to and cancels the claim. With blockchain and smart contract implementation, this framework can solve all the trust and security issues that rely on a standard insurance policy.