Solidification Rate Research Articles

Magma titanium and iron contents dictate crystallization timescales and rheological behaviour in basaltic volcanic systems

Magma ascending through Earth’s crust undergoes complex chemical and physical changes that may induce crystallization, a process that contributes to lead the magmatic system toward a thermodynamic state of equilibrium. The diverse cooling and deformative regimes suffered by magmas heavily influence crystallization rates, solidification timescales, and consequently, the rheological evolution of magma. This, in turn, significantly impacts the dynamics of volcanic plumbing systems and the associated eruptive styles. Here, we investigate the rheological changes in Stromboli magma (Italy) during disequilibrium crystallization under non-isothermal subliquidus conditions. By systematically varying the cooling rate (1-10 °C/min) and the shear rate (1-10 s−1), we find that cooling rates significantly influence the solidification path of the basalt, whereas shear rates have a subordinate effect. By comparing our results with literature data on basalts from Mt. Etna (Italy), characterized by higher TiO2 and FeOtot contents, we observed distinct timescales and rates of solidification, contributing to unique eruptive dynamics in these volcanic plumbing systems.

In situ observation and reduction of hot-cracks in laser additive manufacturing

Cracking during Laser Additive Manufacturing is a problem for many higher-strength aluminium alloys, including AA6061. Here, we used a pulsed laser with ramp-down power modulation to improve the cracking resistance by about 50% compared to the use of a rectangular pulsed laser. Using synchrotron in situ X-ray imaging at 100,000 images s−1, ground truth data was obtained about changes in melt pool geometry, solidification rate, and thermal gradients were calculated. An analytical hot cracking model was developed to show that these changes lead to a decreased hot tear susceptibility. Therefore, laser pulse modulation can be an effective tool to reduce crack susceptibility of alloys. More fundamentally, the results demonstrate that modifying thermal conditions provides a pathway to crack elimination in LAM and the model established in our study sets the foundation for further complex laser manipulation in modifying the printability and resulting mechanical properties of hard-to-process alloys in Laser Additive Manufacturing.

High efficiency solar-grade silicon producing by directional solidification through controlling diffusion of impurity

The precise distribution of impurity of the whole silicon ingot is investigated through a theoretical model and the experiments. This model solves the problem of inaccurate prediction of impurity distribution in the final solidification region. The model was used to calculate the distribution of iron impurity in polycrystalline silicon ingots after directional solidification and compared with experiments. The calculation accuracy was significantly improved compared to the traditional Scheil equation. This paper investigates the influence of cooling rate, silicon ingot height and solidification rate on the yield of purified products after directional solidification. For the experimental equipment and raw materials in this paper, the optimal cooling rate of silicon ingots after directional solidification is 0.33 °C/s, the optimal height of silicon ingots is 0.34 m, and the yield of silicon purification increases with the decrease of directional solidification rate. Based on the research results, a standard for removing the top skin of silicon ingots after directional solidification and a method for improving the purification yield by suppressing impurity diffusion during the cooling stage were obtained. This model can provide theoretical guidance for the development of low-cost and high-efficiency methods for removing impurities from polycrystalline silicon, and is of great significance for the development of the photovoltaic industry. In addition, the theoretical model proposed in this paper can also be applied to the directional solidification purification process of other materials, such as the preparation of high-purity aluminum and high-purity titanium, and can predict the impurity migration behavior and distribution pattern throughout the purification process.

Compressive Property and Toughening Mechanism of Directionally Solidified Fe(Al, Ta)/Fe2Ta (Al) Eutectic Composites

Herein, Fe(Al, Ta)/Fe2Ta(Al) eutectic composites are prepared using the electron beam floating zone melting directional solidification technique. The compression and fracture toughness properties of Fe(Al, Ta)/Fe2Ta(Al) eutectic composites at different solidification rates are studied with compression and three‐point bending experiments. The toughening mechanism of the material is also analyzed from morphology, composition, and microstructure. The results show that the yield strength and compression properties of the Fe(Al, Ta)/Fe2Ta(Al) eutectic composite are increased with the increase of the solidification rate. The room‐temperature fracture toughness reaches 30.5 MPa m1/2 when the solidification rate is 4 mm min−1. In addition, the material exhibits high strength performance at room temperature. However, it exhibits poor strength and excellent plasticity due to the softening effect of recrystallization at 600 °C. The toughening mechanism of the Fe(Al, Ta)/Fe2Ta(Al) eutectic composites can be summarized as crack blunting, crack branching, crack deflection, and local deformation.

Effect of TiB2 on the microstructure and mechanical properties of TiAl alloy produced by laser direct energy deposition

A Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy was prepared by laser directed energy deposition (DED). The microstructure of the DED-produced Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb alloy exhibited a coarse columnar structure along the building direction. Through a combination of experiment and numerical simulation, the temperature gradient and solidification rate of the single-track sample were calculated theoretically. The columnar to equiaxed transition (CET) behavior of molten pool solidification was quantitatively analyzed, and the microstructure transition diagram was established. The effect of TiB2 on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the TiAl alloy was investigated. The columnar changed to equiaxed grains in the vertical cross section by adding nanometer-sized TiB2 particles and the microstructure was significantly refined. The grain size was reduced from 48.5 μm to 4.9 μm. Some equiaxed γ grains were distributed around the banded TiB2. The compressive properties were improved from 628.4 MPa to 698.8 MPa by adding nanometer-sized TiB2 particles. Finally, the solidification behavior and the microstructure refinement mechanism caused by the addition of TiB2 particles were discussed.

Simulation of storage of cold energy considering unsteady conduction mechanism in mathematical model

To enhance system productivity, fins were incorporated into the container, and PCM (phase change material) infused with alumina nanoparticles was introduced. Mathematical modeling was employed to evaluate the current problem, with a specific focus on utilizing water as the PCM for achieving the fastest solidification process. The integration of fins, PCM, and nano-powders introduces a novel dimension to the research, providing unique insights into enhancing solidification processes. The surrounding cold walls of the container play a crucial role in solidification, primarily through conduction. The low speed of H2O allows its neglect in simulation. The developed mathematical model for this work comprises two equations. While considering larger powder sizes improves particle interaction, the negative impact of sedimentation diminishes conductivity. The addition of nanoparticles results in a 41.34 % enhancement in the solidification rate. Furthermore, altering the powder diameter from thirty to 40 nm reduces the completion time about 19.98 %, whereas an increase from 40 to 50 nm elevates it by about 49.37 %.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of cast, eutectic Al-Ce-Ni-Mn-Sc-Zr alloys with multiple strengthening mechanisms

The effects of Ni additions on microstructure and microhardness of near-eutectic Al-9Ce-xNi-0.75Mn-0.18Sc-0.12Zr (x = 2.5, 3.2, and 3.9 wt.%) alloys are investigated for various cooling rates. The as-cast microstructure consists of fine, micron-scale Al11Ce3 and Ni-rich phases formed during eutectic solidification. Two Ni-rich phases are observed: (i) Al27Ce3Ni6 at higher Ni contents and slower solidification rates, and (ii) Al9(Ni,Mn,Fe)2 at lower Ni contents and faster solidification rates. While these Ni-containing alloys have higher microhardness than a Ni-free control alloy, varying the Ni concentration in the 2.5–3.9 wt.% range does not significantly affect the microhardness, indicative of competing strengthening and weakening effects from adding Ni. The alloy with intermediate Ni content (3.2 wt.%) is selected for further microstructural and mechanical characterization. It contains four coarsening-resistant strengthening constituents: (i) micron-scale Al11Ce3 and (ii) Al27Ce3Ni6 or Al9(Ni,Mn,Fe)2 platelets, all formed during eutectic solidification, (iii) L12-Al3(Sc,Zr) nanoprecipitates formed on aging, and (iv) Mn atoms in solid solution in the α-Al matrix. The combined strengthening mechanisms impart high strength at ambient and elevated temperatures, as measured by microhardness (as a function of aging time), by compression and tensile experiments, and by compressive creep measurements. Alloys previously reported in the literature - with various combinations of one, two or three of these four strengthening phases - show lower hardness and creep resistance, indicating that cumulative strengthening can be achieved when combining mechanisms; the present alloy containing all four phases shows a remarkably high creep threshold stress of 62 MPa at 300 °C.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-Cu alloy during wire and arc additive manufacturing by adding micron TiB2 particles

ABSTRACT Micron TiB2 particles were added to the 2319 aluminum alloy using a surface coating method during the additive process. The study focused on the formation, microstructure, and properties in order to achieve deposited components with a uniform microstructure and enhancing strength and plasticity. The critical migration velocity (Vcr = 335 μm/s) of with micron-sized TiB2 particles addition was larger than the solidification rate, which caused particles to be pushed by the solid-liquid interface and ultimately reside at the grain boundary position. The micron-sized TiB2 particles reduced the activation energy for nucleation of the precipitation of the θ’ phase, lowered the energy barrier for nucleation, and introduced dislocations to create lattice distortion channels. This enabled rapid diffusion of solute atoms and facilitated the precipitation and growth of the θ’ phase. Finally, the transverse strength and elongation were higher, reaching 339.07 MPa and 21.3%, which increased by 45% and 60% respectively.

A high-strength Al-Cu-Sc alloy fabricated by rapid solidification and direct aging

The effect of solidification rates and heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-Cu-Sc alloys was investigated. The results demonstrate that rapid solidification (RS) effectively prevents the formation of the W phase, which is common in conventional solidification (CS) alloys. Additionally, the supersaturated Cu solute within the RS matrix facilitates direct aging, leading to uniform and fine θ′ precipitates. Although the number density of θ′ is slightly lower than in the CS Al-Cu + T6 alloy, the dense Al3Sc nanodispersoids compensate for the strength loss in another aspect. As expected, the RS Al-Cu-Sc + aging alloy exhibits superior tensile strengths and ductility. The improvement in strength can be primarily attributed to Orowan strenthening and precipitation strengthening, related to Al3Sc nanodispersoids and θ′ precipitates.

Multi-Pass Laser Polishing of As-Built Directed Energy Deposition Surfaces

Abstract Laser polishing (LP) provides a fast and efficient way of remelting part surfaces manufactured by additive manufacturing to alter both their geometric as well as physical properties. Depending on the laser parameters, remelted surfaces with different properties are achieved, with a majority exhibiting lower surface roughness compared to the original surface. In this study, a high-power continuous fiber laser is used to polish Inconel 718 (IN718) surfaces produced by depositing a single layer of clads on a steel substrate by the powder-blown directed energy deposition (DED) process. Polishing was performed under different sets of parameters, namely, laser power, beam diameter, feed rate or feed, hatch spacing, and the number of polishing passes. Their effects on the surface roughness profiles and the microstructural properties of the sample cross section were analyzed after one and two polishing passes. Optical microscopic images of the sample's cross sections show the presence of supersaturated γ phase particles, γ′+γ″ precipitates, Laves phases, and δ phase needles. The combined effect of high-temperature gradients and lower solidification rates in certain regions within the cross section results in undercooled regions and pseudo-heat treatment of unmelted regions close to the undercooled regions. These results are corroborated by indenting the various regions of the IN718 sample cross section with a pyramidal diamond indenter in the form of a grid, resulting in different micro-hardness values due to different densities of precipitate and phase transformed δ particles.

Bionic-response surface combination optimization method for latent heat storage performance improvement

Improving the melting and solidification rate of phase change material is crucial for enhancing the charging or discharging power of a latent heat storage system. This research proposed a novel two-tube heat exchanger latent heat storage unit with longitudinal fins of horsetail stem based on the bionic structure of horsetail stem cross-section. Numerical modeling of transient melting of phase change material in horsetail stem fins by natural convection was established. The model’s accuracy was verified and compared with horsetail stem fins and conventional straight fins. Moreover, we optimized and designed the new fin structure based on the response surface method with minimum melting time as the objective function. The optimization results show that the optimized ponytail fins have a more uniform temperature distribution of the phase change material, significantly eliminating the influence of the heat transfer hysteresis zone, and reaching the steady state more quickly under the heat storage condition. Compared to straight fins, optimized horsetail stem fins reduced the heat storage area by only 3.80% and shortened the phase change material melting time by 44.30%. The solidification time was also reduced by 54.59%. This study provides a new idea for the structural design of phase change heat storage fins.

Effects of the asymmetric and oscillating turbulent melt flow on the heat transfer and solidification inside the thin slab continuous casting (TSC) mold under the applied electromagnetic brake (EMBr)

The thin slab casting (TSC) is a breakthrough near-net-shape technique for flat products accompanied by rapid casting and solidification rates. The TSC quality hinges on the turbulence, super-heat flow and growth of the solidified shell. The electromagnetic brake (EMBr) is commonly applied to control the fresh melt flow after feeding through a submerged entry nozzle (SEN). Numerical modelling is a perfect tool to investigate the multiphase phenomena in the continuous casting (CC). The presented study considers the heat transfer through the solid shell and water-cooled copper mold including the averaged thermal resistance of the slag skin and the air gap coupled with the turbulent flow and magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) model using an in-house code developed inside the open-source computational fluid dynamics (CFD) package OpenFOAM®. The model is applied to investigate different undesired asymmetric melt flow issues: (i) with the misaligned or (ii) partially blocked SEN; (iii) caused by the mean flow fluctuations with the natural frequencies; (iv) related to the oscillations of the fresh melt jets for the specific SEN designs and casting regimes. The variation of the flow pattern and superheat distribution is studied and presented for different scenarios both with and without applied EMBr.

Heterogeneous nucleation of polyethylene crystals on binary hexagonal nanoplatelets

Crystal nucleating agents offer an effective strategy for controlling the morphology, dimensional stability and rate of solidification of polymers during processing. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation can shed light on nucleation behavior at the nanoscopic length and time scales over which nucleation occurs. In this work, crystal nucleation of a polyethylene oligomer, n-pentacontane, on three graphene-like substrates, hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), and tungsten disulfide (WS2), was simulated, and the thermodynamic efficiencies of these substrates as nucleating agents were determined. Experimental measurements of heterogeneous nucleation of a high-density polyethylene on nanoparticles of these three graphene-like materials were performed using the method of dispersed microdroplets in an immiscible polystyrene matrix. Qualitative agreement between simulations and experiments was observed for trends in nucleation rate, J, and interfacial free energy difference, Δσ, with JhBN>JMoS2>JWS2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$J_{\ ext{hBN}} > J_{\ ext{MoS}_{2}} > J_{\ ext{WS}_{2}}$$\\end{document}. The simulations are then used to gain additional insight into the mechanisms of nucleation. Epitaxy is confirmed in all systems, with small mismatches in lattice spacing being accommodated by strain in the oligomer crystal. However, epitaxy alone is insufficient to explain the observed trends. The strength of interaction between the nucleating agent and the polyethylene oligomer is found to be the strongest predictor of nucleating agent efficiency. The strength of interaction is in turn related to the density of interaction sites at the interface: hBN has the highest density, and thus the fastest nucleation rate.

Dimension Prediction and Microstructure Study of Wire Arc Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel Based on Artificial Neural Network and Finite Element Simulation.

The dimensional accuracy and microstructure affect the service performance of parts fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Regulating the geometry and microstructure of such parts presents a challenge. The coupling method of an artificial neural network and finite element (FE) is proposed in this research for this purpose. Back-propagating neural networks (BPNN) based on optimization algorithms were established to predict the bead width (BW) and height (BH) of the deposited layers. Then, the bead geometry was modeled based on the predicted dimension, and 3D FE heat transfer simulation was performed to investigate the evolution of temperature and microstructure. The results showed that the errors in BW and BH were less than 6%, and the beetle antenna search BPNN model had the highest prediction accuracy compared to the other models. The simulated melt pool error was less than 5% with the experimental results. The decrease in the ratio of the temperature gradient and solidification rate induced the transition of solidified grains from cellular crystals to columnar dendrites and then to equiaxed dendrites. Accelerating the cooling rate increased the primary dendrite arm spacing and δ-ferrite content. These results indicate that the coupling model provides a pathway for regulating the dimensions and microstructures of manufactured parts.

Effect of Cr2O3 on the clinkerization and carbonation properties of γ-C2S

Dicalcium silicate (C2S) has strong CO2 reactivity and is a possible low-carbon binder. In order to facilitate its industrial production, it is important to evaluate the potential influence of minor elements in the raw material on the performance of γ-C2S. In this work, the effect of Cr2O3, a common impurity in solid wastes, on the structure and carbonation properties of C2S was investigated. The results show that doping Cr2O3 can stabilize the β-C2S crystalline form at low temperatures, inhibit the transition from β-C2S to γ-C2S due to the substitution of Si by Cr to change the silica-oxygen tetrahedra, thereby reduce the degree of carbonation of clinkers. During calcination at 1350 °C, Cr2O3 was partially evaporated. The leaching rate of Cr from carbonized clinker decreased significantly and the solidification rate of Cr in carbonized clinker was greater than 89.9 %. This work lays a solid foundation for the low-temperature preparation of β-C2S from industrial solid wastes.

Porosity suppression of nickel-based superalloy by modulated base temperature in laser welding and mechanism analysis

This paper investigates the distribution pattern of welding porosity defects in annular weld seams of superalloy during laser welding. The results reveal that the initial portion of the annular weld seam exhibits a higher density and larger size of porosity defects compared to the ending portion. At a laser power of P = 360 W, the numerical simulation combination showed that the A1 region's average cooling rate is 8.767 × 103 °C/s and the A2 region is 8.151 × 103 °C/s that the thermal conduction effect at the initial welding position leads to an elevation in the base metal temperature in the subsequent unwelded region, thereby reducing the solidification rate of the molten pool in the latter half of the weld seam and effectively decreasing the porosity rate at the weld seam. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that elevating the base metal temperature can effectively modify the cooling rate of the molten pool, thereby influencing the formation of porosity defects. At a laser power of P = 360 W, increasing the base metal temperature to 600 °C reduces the cooling rate of the molten pool from 8.767 × 103 °C/s at a base metal temperature of T = 20 °C to 7.451 × 103 °C/s, leading to a decrease in the porosity rate from 3.357% to 0.022%. At a laser power of P = 672 W, increasing the base metal temperature to 600 °C reduces the cooling rate of the molten pool from 6.781 × 103 °C/s at a base metal temperature of T = 20 °C to 5.056 × 103 °C/s, leading to a decrease in the porosity rate from 8.214% to 0.002%. The increase in laser power brings more heat input, so the solidification rate of the molten pool decreases, but the porosity increases significantly. However, increasing the base temperature can effectively suppress the porosity defects under different laser powers. The research further reveals the relationship between welding porosity rate and cooling conditions, providing a control strategy for achieving low porosity rate welds.

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ЩІЛЬНОСТІ МАКРОСТРУКТУРИ ВИЛИВКІВ ІЗ ВТОРИННОГО СПЛАВУ СИСТЕМИ AL-SI ПРИ МОДИФІКУВАННІ ВИСОКОДИСПЕРСНИМ КАРБІДОМ КРЕМНІЮ

The study analyzes the impact of modifying a secondary aluminum casting alloy of the Al-Si system with high-dispersion silicon carbide on the density of the metal and the macrostructure of cylindrical castings. It was found that the solidification rate and the structure of the metal depend on the type of mold (metal or sand-clay) and the amount of added SiC. Alloys with a 0.1% SiC addition, cast in a metal mold, have the highest density. The macrostructure of SiC-modified castings is characterized by the presence of deep shrinkage cavities and concentrated porosity. Castings poured into a sand-clay mold with SiC modification show concentrated shrinkage and gas pores, which corresponds to a low grade on the reference scale. The study highlights the importance of choosing the casting method and alloy modification to optimize the density and structure of the castings.

Controlling of cellular substructure and its effect on mechanical properties of FeCoCrNiMo0.2 high entropy alloy fabricated by selective laser melting

Fine cellular substructures are typical microstructure feature of high entropy alloys (HEAs) produced via selective laser melting (SLM), playing a pivotal role in improving the mechanical properties. Nonetheless, the controlling of cellular substructure and its impact on the mechanical properties remains ambiguous. This study investigates the effect of energy densities on the cellular substructure evolution and mechanical properties of the FeCoCrNiMo0.2 HEA. It is found the increase in energy density causes a decrease in temperature gradient (G) and solidification rate (R) in molten pool, consequently leading to the increase of cellular substructure size and the intensification of Mo segregation at cellular substructure boundaries. The cellular substructure size (d) can be described by formula d=80(GR)−1/3, in which G and R can be obtained from discrete element method - computational fluid dynamics (DEM-CFD) simulation. The strength of the FeCoCrNiMo0.2 HEA is significantly affected by dislocation strengthening (σd) and segregation strengthening (σs), which are further determined by the cellular substructure size and the Mo segregation, respectively. The increase of cellular substructure size leads to the decrease of σd, while the intensification of Mo segregation results in the increase of σs. The competition between these two strengthening effects leads to an optimized and excellent tensile property of 707 MPa in yield strength, 947 MPa in ultimate tensile strength and 34 % in fracture elongation at a moderate energy density of 47 J/mm3. The findings provide guidance towards the advancement of high-performance high entropy alloys fabricated by SLM in terms of cellular substructure controlling.

An improved preparation method of core-shell Al@Sn-Bi microspheres and its microstructure formation mechanism

This paper presents an improved method for achieving controllable preparation of the composition and size of the monotectic alloy core-shell structure microspheres. This advancement is expected to enhance the commercial application of monotectic alloy core-shell structure microspheres. By installing a heating device at the top of the drop tube in the pulsated orifice ejection method setup, we achieved in-situ heat treatment of falling droplets, resulting in the successful preparation of Al45(Sn42Bi58)55 core-shell structure microspheres. Furthermore, we investigated the formation mechanism of the Al@Sn-Bi core-shell structure. Nine sets of Al-Sn-Bi microspheres with varying in-situ heat treatment temperatures were prepared. Analysis via X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the microspheres consisted of Al-rich, Sn-rich, and Bi-rich phases, without any intermetallic compounds. Scanning electron microscopy results indicated that as the in-situ heat treatment temperature increased, the structure of the Al-Sn-Bi microspheres transitioned from irregular to regular core-shell configurations. This suggests that higher heat treatment temperatures prolong liquid phase separation time, leading to increased repetition of Marangoni motion within the droplet, Ostwald ripening of the minor phase droplets, and Soret effect of the matrix phase. However, at temperatures exceeding 700 °C, the solidification rate of alloy droplets decreased, causing the Al-rich phase core to deviate from the center and form a crescent structure due to Stokes motion.

Numerical modelling and experimental validation on the discharging performance of paraffin/graphite matrix composite with various configurations of bulk density and wall temperature

Graphite material in the form of expanded has proven to be an effective material to remedy the low thermal conductivity of paraffin storage medium. The present work focuses on the solidification performance of carbon-based approach via graphite matrix composite with phase change to eliminate the bottleneck of low thermal conductivity issue of phase change materials for thermal energy storage applications beyond the current literature. Paraffin/graphite matrix composites with various bulk density values of 0 kg/m3 (Case 1), 23 kg/m3 (Case 2), 50 kg/m3 (Case 3), 100 kg/m3 (Case 4), and 143 kg/m3 (Case 5) under various operating conditions of wall temperature (Twall: 15 °C, 25 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C), which mimic real applications' fluid temperature, are performed numerically in detail. The numerical model was validated with experimental outputs performed by the authors. Numerical results show that paraffin/graphite matrix composites have a great potential for the solidification/discharging process to recover the heat stored in the charging/melting period. Uniform and rapid solidification behaviour is achieved with the paraffin/graphite matrix composite in terms of conduction-dominated heat transfer via abundant thermal bridges compared to the pure paraffin case. Higher bulk density values and lower cold surface temperatures present superior performance in solidification rate and thermal energy recovery rate. However, the effect of the bulk density is slowed down with the beyond of certain value of bulk density (100 kg/m3). For 100 kg/m3 (Case 4) at Twall = 15 °C, the heat recovery rate is enhanced by 31.17 times and 3.84 times compared to the 0 kg/m3 and 23 kg/m3. The heat recovery rate of 100 kg/m3 is improved by 350.8 % for Twall = 15 °C in comparison with Twall = 45 °C. The total solidification rate (t = 17.5 min) increased by 90.94 % and 62.94 % for 100 kg/m3 at Twall = 35 °C compared to 0 kg/m3 and 23 kg/m3, respectively.