Solidification Of Cast Iron Research Articles

Combination of microscopic model and VoF-multiphase approach for numerical simulation of nodular cast iron solidification

The ongoing increase in the size and capacity of state-of-the-art wind power plants is highlighting the need to reduce the weight of critical components, such as hubs, main shaft bearing housings, gear box housings and support bases. These components are manufactured as nodular iron castings (spheroid graphite iron, or SGI). A weight reduction of up to 20% is achievable by optimizing the geometry to minimize volume, thus enabling significant downsizing of wind power plants. One method for enhancing quality control in the production of thick-walled SGI castings, and thus reducing tolerances and, consequently, enabling castings of smaller volume is via a casting simulation of mould filling and solidification based on a combination of microscopic model and VoF-multiphase approach. Coupled fluid flow with heat transport and phase transformation kinetics during solidification is described by partial differential equations and solved using the finite volume method. The flow of multiple phases is described using a volume of fluid approach. Mass conservation equations are solved separately for both liquid and solid phases. At the micro-level, the diffusion-controlled growth model for grey iron eutectic grains by Wetterfall et al. is combined with a growth model for white iron eutectic grains. The micro-solidification model is coupled with macro-transport equations via source terms in the energy and continuity equations. As a first step the methodology was applied to a simple geometry to investigate the impact of mould-filling on the grey-to-white transition prediction in nodular cast iron.

On the Effect of Pouring Temperature on Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron Solidification

This work is focused on the effect of pouring temperature on the thermal-microstructural response of an eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron (SGCI). To this end, experiments as well as numerical simulations were carried out. Solidification tests in a wedge-like part were cast at two different pouring temperatures. Five specific locations exhibiting distinct cooling rates along the sample were chosen for temperature measurements and metallographic analysis to obtain the number and size of graphite nodules at the end of the process. The numerical simulations were performed using a multinodular-based model. Reasonably good numerical-experimental agreements were obtained for both the cooling curves and the graphite nodule counts.

Graphite and Solid Fraction Evolutions during Solidification of Nodular Cast Irons

Ductile iron casting production is strongly affected by austenite and graphite distribution obtained after the solidification process. At the same time it is accepted that solidification behavior can be considered as hypo-, hyper- or eutectic depending on the chemical composition; there is still some misconception about the growth evolution of graphite nodules and about solid fraction progression. Quenching experiments were performed on two different carbon equivalent compositions using inoculated and non-inoculated thermal analysis standard samples with the aim of freezing the existing phases at different solid fractions for each alloy. As a result of these experiments, it was possible to study the structural features found at different locations of each sample and at different stages of solidification. Additionally nodule evolution during the liquid-solid transformation was also analyzed and discussed regarding the chemical and processing characteristics of the prepared alloys.

The Influence of Sulphur and Oxigen Additions in Mg-Treated Iron on the Cooling Curves Parameters

The main objectiv of this experimental reserch is a comparative analysis of sulphur and oxygen effects on the cooling curves parameters at different iron melt modifying potential (residual Mg content). For the experiment, three irons with different modifying potential (0.0014, 0.0213 and 0.033 wt % residual Mg content respectively) were developed. After Ca-Ba inoculation, the three irons were additional treated by stoichiometric equivalent additions of sulphur or oxygen as FeS2 and Fe2O3 respectively. Both FeS2 and Fe2O3 sources were placed on the bottom of standard Quik-Cup moulds,usualy used for iron melt thermal analysis. The effect of sulphur and oxygen on the standard and nonconventional cooling curves parameters were evaluated to a more deep understanding of the cast iron solidification mechanism. The cooling curves parameters are strongly influenced both by the initial residual Mg level of iron melt and afterwords sulphur/oxygen additions. A very complex and sometimes confused variation of the cooling curves parameters was recorded because of different actions of the three factors (iron melt modifying potential, sulphur and oxygen). As a previous paper highlighted, sulphur addition has a strong graphite decompactizing effect while oxygen addition has mostly an inoculant effect.

Thermal Microstructural Multiscale Simulation of Solidification and Eutectoid Transformation of Hypereutectic Gray Cast Iron

Although the gray cast iron solidification process has been the subject of several modeling studies, almost all available models appear to deal with only the more widely used hypoeutectic compositions. Models related to hypereutectic gray iron compositions with lamellar (or flake) graphite, and in particular for the proeutectic and eutectoid zones, are hard to find in the open literature. Hence, in the present work, a thermal microstructural multiscale model is proposed to describe the solidification and eutectoid transformation of a slightly hypereutectic composition leading to lamellar graphite gray iron morphology. The main predictions were: (a) temperature evolutions; (b) fractions of graphite, ferrite, and pearlite; (c) density; and (d) size of ferrite, pearlite, and gray eutectic grains; (e) average interlamellar graphite spacing; and (f) its thickness. The predicted cooling curves and fractions for castings with two different compositions and two different pouring temperatures were validated using experimental data. The differences between this model and existing models for hypoeutectic compositions are discussed.

The Effect of Inoculation on the Thermal Expansion/Contraction during Solidification of Gray Cast Iron

Inoculation of casting used to improve the microstructure and the properties of the component. Depending upon the area of application, gray cast iron has different microstructure and mechanical properties. The type and amount of the inoculation result in shape and orientation differences of the flake graphite. The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) shows a variation in displacements change during the solidification. Temperature measurement used to analyze cooling curves and microstructural analysis of sample to examine the physical differences. Thermal analysis compared with the experimental results and microstructural study for describing the variation in area fraction and shape of graphite. The experimental result indicates contraction in austenite formation region, and expansion in eutectic formation region. The effect of the inoculant and the superheat temperature shows a variation in degree of expansion/contraction and cooling rates of the experiments. The comparisons between the experimental and the theoretical results have been done. Combining the theoretical and experimental results, it resembles a difference in eutectic formation region, and it needs carful investigation in future works.

Cast Iron Solidification Structure and how it is Related to Defect Formation

In this work, the meaning of the solidification structure and how it is related to defect formation in grey cast iron will be discussed. The work also confirms observations made earlier. In previous work the formation of shrinkage porosity in grey cast iron cylinder heads was investigated. It was found that the defect is located around solidification units resembling primary austenite grains. The solidification of grey cast iron starts with the formation of primary austenite grains, followed by the eutectic solidification. The primary grains nucleate and grow either as columnar or equiaxed grains, creating a columnar to equiaxed transition between the two zones. Based on the presence of a migrating hot spot, and other characteristics found on the cylinder heads, a geometry was developed that promote the formation of shrinkage porosity. The primary solidification structure, normally transformed during the solid state transformation, was preserved using a technique called Direct Austempering After Solidification (DAAS). After solidification, the samples were cut and prepared for investigation using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with a detector for Electron Back Scattered Diffraction (EBSD). Individual grains were identified and the primary solidification structure around the defects was revealed. The investigation shows how shrinkage porosity is formed and located between primary austenite grains. This confirms that the primary solidification structure has a large influence on the formation of defects in grey cast iron. The investigation also confirms the correctness of earlier results as well as the validity of the DAAS technique.

Carburizer Effect on Cast Iron Solidification

This paper presents the effect of carburizing materials on cast iron solidification and crystallization. The studies consisted of cast iron preparation from steel scrap and different carburizers. For a comparison, pig iron was exclusively used in a solid charge. Crystallization analysis revealed the influence of the carburizer material on the crystallization curves as well as differences in the solidification paths of cast iron prepared with the use of different charge materials. The carburizers’ influence on undercooling during the eutectic crystallization process was analyzed. The lowest undercooling rate was recorded for the melt with pig iron, then for synthetic graphite, natural graphite, anthracite, and petroleum coke (the highest undercooling rate). So a hypothesis was formulated that eutectic cells are created most effectively with the presence of carbon from pig iron (the highest nucleation potential), and then for the graphite materials (crystallographic similarity with the carbon precipitation in the cast iron). The most difficult eutectic crystallization is for anthracite and petroleum coke (higher undercooling is necessary). This knowledge can be crucial when the foundry plant is going to change the solid charge composition replacing the pig iron by steel scrap and the recarburization process.

Cementite Solidification in Cast Iron

Two hypereutectic cast irons (5.01 pct Cr and 5.19 pct V) were cast and the polished surfaces of test pieces were deep-etched and analyzed via scanning electron microscopy. The results show that graphite lamellae intersect the cementite and a thin austenite film nucleates and grows on the cementite plates. For both compositions, graphite and cementite can coexist as equilibrium phases, with the former always nucleating and growing first. The eutectic carbides grow from the austenite dendrites in a direction perpendicular to the primary plates.

A Calculation Model of Carbon Diffusion Coefficient in the Austenite for Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron

This paper presents the relationship between the carbon atom diffusion coefficient in the austenite and the temperature during the nodular cast iron solidification under different cooling rates or with different carbon contents. Pouring the wedge-shaped casting explores the influence of cooling rate on the diffusion coefficient. The other part explores the change of the diffusion coefficient with different carbon contents by water quenching to save the organization in the solidification. Results show that both the cooling rate and the carbon content can affect the diffusion coefficient, and it decreases as the cooling rate increases. More attempts were also done to correlate the diffusion coefficient with the temperature in different carbon content. It has been found that the diffusion coefficient decreases as the temperature increase.

Kinetics of graphite expansion during eutectic solidification of cast iron

The paper introduces a new linear displacement analysis (LDA)/thermal analysis (TA) experimental device for measuring linear displacement during the solidification of cast iron. The experimental device comprises a sand mould encased in a steel shell that prevents mould wall movements. Thus, only the linear displacement caused by the shrinkage or expansion of the metal is recorded by the transducers. Two quartz rods introduced directly at different heights into the liquid metal and connected to two transducers record the linear displacement during the liquid–solid transformation and subsequent cooling. Two thermocouples positioned at the same height with the quartz rods allow for the concomitant TA and LDA and thus for the direct correlation between expansion/contraction and the temperature change during solidification events such as graphite formation. The LDA device was used to study the differences in the solidification mechanisms of irons with different graphite morphologies (lamellar, compacted/vermicular and spheroidal) at carbon equivalent in the range of 3·7–4·4%. The analysis included the LDA and TA curves and full metallographic characterisation of the cast irons. In general, graphite expansion increased as the graphite shape changed from lamellar, to compacted and then to spheroidal. The most important process variables are the magnesium and carbon contents. Higher Mg residual and C in the iron produced more graphite expansion. Compacted graphite (CG) iron was particularly sensitive to the Mg residual. Indeed, the high Mg CG irons exhibited similar graphite expansion to that of spheroidal graphite (SG) iron, while the low Mg CG iron expansion was closer to that of the lamellar graphite (LG) iron. Graphite expansion increased for all data with the time interval over which graphite expansion occurred. It also increased with both carbon and carbon equivalent. The time for graphite expansion increased noticeably with the carbon content of the iron. It did not depend on the graphite shape. By combining TA and LDA, it was possible to plot the evolution of graphite expansion as a function of the fraction solid and thus to understand the kinetics of graphite expansion. The amount of expansion available at the end of solidification was quantified. Such data, when correlated with process variables, will be useful in decreasing microshrinkage and in producing riserless compacted and SG irons.

Experimental and numerical analysis of effect of cooling rate on thermal–microstructural response of spheroidal graphite cast iron solidification

This work presents an experimental and numerical study of the solidification process of an eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron (SGI). The effect of the cooling rate on the thermal–microstructural response is particularly analysed. To this end, experiments as well as numerical simulations were carried out. The experiments consisted in a solidification test in a wedge-like casting such that different cooling rates were measured at specific positions along the part. A metallographic analysis was also performed in five locations of the sample with the aim of obtaining the number and size of graphite nodules at the end of the process. The numerical simulations were made using multinodular based and uninodular based models. These two models predicted similar results in terms of cooling curves and nodule counts. Besides, good experimental–numerical agreements were obtained for both the cooling curves and the graphite nodule counts.

On problems of volume change measurements in lamellar cast iron

Solidification of lamellar cast iron is a complex mechanism due to the contracting austenite phase and the expanding graphite phase precipitation. The combined effect of contraction–expansion has an influence on the volume change related defects (shrinkage porosity and penetration). Critical moments in measuring volume change are the methods used for measurement together with the interpretation of the solidification based on the macrostructure. Reliable results are obtained using displacement measurement in both axial and radial direction of a cylindrical sample in combination with using two thermocouples and a force measurement unit. Common drawback of the used method together with other methods presented in the literature is the early expansion observed before the coherence of the solidifying grains. The introduced force measurement gives a novel interpretation of the columnar to equiaxed transition, and the displacement measurement in different directions within a cast sample reveal the anisotropic character of the volume change.

Thermomechanical–microstructural modelling of nodular cast iron solidification

This paper presents a thermomechanical–microstructural formulation for the analysis of the solidification process of nodular cast irons of eutectic composition. This formulation is defined in a finite strain thermoplasticity framework considering multinodular microstructure based liquid–solid phase change effects. The performance of this model is evaluated in the analysis of a solidification test for which some laboratory measurements are available. Computed temperature and displacement evolutions together with final values of austenite and graphite volumetric fractions and density of graphite nodules are all found to reasonably agree with the corresponding experimental measurements. This analysis illustrates the possibility of tackling different coupled and complex phenomena occurring in casting problems.

Feを25-70mass%Niで置換した高クロム鋳鉄の凝固組織

Feを25-70mass%Niで置換した高クロム鋳鉄の凝固組織

Numerical modeling of coupled heat transfer and phase transformation for solidification of the gray cast iron

In the present study the numerical model in 2D is used to study the solidification bahavior of the gray cast iron. The conventional heat transfer is coupled with the proposed micro-model to predict the amount of different phases, i.e. total austenite (γ) phase, graphite (G) and cementite (C), in gray cast iron based on the cooling rate (R). The results of phase amount are evaluated to find the proper correlation in respect to cooling rate. The semi-empirical formulas are proposed to find a good correlation between mechanical property (hardness Brinell) and different phase amounts and the cooling rate. Results show that the hardness of the gray cast iron decreases as the amount of graphite phase increases. It also increases by increased amount of the cementite and the cooling rate. These formulas were developed to correlate the phase fractions to hardness. Results are compared whit experimental data and show good agreement.

Solidification of SiMo Nodular Cast Iron for High Temperature Applications

During the 1960s and 70s research was aimed at developing a material withstanding the ever higher temperatures in a combustion engine. This work resulted in what have later been named SiMo and D5S. SiMo is a nodular cast iron typically containing 4–6 % Si and 0.5–2 % Mo and can be used in temperatures up to 850–860 °C. D5S is a nickel base material. High silicon and silicon–molybdenum content improves the dimensional stability of ductile iron. Silicon increases the transformation temperature where austenite transforms to ferrite. Molybdenum partly segregates and freezes in intercellular regions, promoting carbides while during the solid state transformation molybdenum particles precipitate around grain boundaries. The solidified material shows a range of interesting structures and phases which will be presented.

The Role of Silicon in the Solidification of High-Cr Cast Irons

This work analyzes the effect of different additions of silicon (0 to 5.0 pct) on the structure of a high-Chromium white cast iron, with chromium content of 16.8 pct and carbon 2.56 pct. The alloys were analyzed in both as-cast and heat-treated conditions. Casting was undertaken in metallic molds that yielded solidification rates faster than in commercial processes. Nevertheless, there was some degree of segregation of silicon; this segregation resulted in a refinement in the microstructure of the alloy. Silicon also generated a greater influence on the structure by destabilizing the austenitic matrix, and promoted greater precipitation of eutectic carbides. Above 3 pct silicon, pearlite formation occurred in preference to martensite. After the destabilization heat treatment, the matrix structure of the irons up to 3 pct Si consisted of secondary carbides in a martensitic matrix with some retained austenite; higher Si additions produced a ferritic matrix. The different as-cast and heat-treated microstructures were correlated with selected mechanical properties such as hardness, matrix microhardness, and fracture toughness. Silicon additions increased matrix microhardness in the as-cast conditions, but the opposite phenomenon occurred in the heat-treated conditions. Microhardness decreased as silicon content was increased. Bulk hardness showed the same behavior. Fracture toughness was observed to increase up to 2 pct Si, and then decreased for higher silicon contents. These results are discussed in terms of the effect of eutectic carbides’ size and the resulting matrix due to the silicon additions.

Dynamic Coarsening of 3.3C–1.9Si Gray Cast Iron

The dynamic coarsening of primary austenite has been investigated by means of interrupted solidification in a hypoeutectic gray cast iron at three different cooling rates. The fundamental characteristic of the coarsening phenomenon, which is the reduction of the total interfacial area (i.e., the primary austenite surface) over time, has been investigated along the solidification interval for the first time in gray cast iron. The primary austenite surface is confirmed to decrease with increasing solidification time. The relation between primary austenite surface reduction and the secondary dendrite arm spacing is reported as well as the time dependence of the inverse surface area of the primary phase per unit volume. The primary austenite surface has been determined via a stereological approach. The secondary dendrite arm spacing is observed to increase throughout the whole solidification range. A novel stereological relation, the modulus of primary dendrite, has been implemented on the calculation of the primary austenite surface. The size scale of the interdendritic phase has been determined by the hydraulic diameter of the interdendritic phase. The linear relations between secondary arm spacing and eutectic cells size and between secondary arm spacing and solidification time have been found to exist during solidification independently of cooling rate. The cooling rate dependence of the secondary dendrite arm spacing and the eutectic cells size is confirmed.

On the relation between primary and eutectic solidification structures in gray iron

The solidification of hypoeutectic gray cast iron starts with the nucleation of primary austenite crystals. Before graphite is nucleated, and the eutectic structure is formed, these crystals start to grow as columnar or equiaxed dendrites. However, very little is known about these dendrites, and especially how they influence the subsequent eutectic structure. Besides, it has previously been shown that the primary solidification structure influences the formation of defects. Shrinkage porosity was found between the dendrites, in the grain boundaries, and the formation of the primary solidification structure was found to influence problems related to metal expansion penetration. Therefore a better understanding about the formation of this structure is of importance. In this work, different inoculants and their influence on the formation of the micro- and macrostructures has been investigated. The inoculants considered are commercially used inoculants, i.e. inoculants used in the foundries, as well as different iron powders. The addition of iron powder is used to promote the primary solidification structure. It is shown that the nucleation of the dendrites is influenced by the amount of iron powder. Secondary dendrite arm spacing is a quantitative measurement in the microstructure related to these dendrites, which in turn depends on the solidification time. Eutectic cell size, on the other hand, is found to depend on secondary dendrite arm spacing. It is shown how the addition of inoculants influences both primary and eutectic solidification structures, and how they are related to each other.