Solid-state Telescope Research Articles

Interpretation of Flat Energy Spectra Upstream of Fast Interplanetary Shocks

Interplanetary shocks are large-scale heliospheric structures often caused by eruptive phenomena at the Sun, and represent one of the main sources of energetic particles. Several interplanetary (IP) shock crossings by spacecraft at 1 au have revealed enhanced energetic-ion fluxes that extend far upstream of the shock. Surprisingly, in some shock events ion fluxes with energies between 100 keV and about 2 MeV acquire similar values (which we refer to as “overlapped” fluxes), corresponding to flat energy spectra in that range. In contrast, closer to the shock the fluxes are observed to depend on energy. In this work, we analyze three IP-shock-related energetic particle events observed by the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft where flat ion energy spectra were observed upstream of the shock. We interpret these observations via a velocity-filter mechanism for particles in a given energy range. In particular, ions with velocity parallel to the local magnetic field larger than the speed of the upstream plasma, in the reference frame of the shock, can easily propagate back upstream, while lower-energy ions tend to be confined to the shock front, thus reducing their fluxes far upstream and giving rise to flat energy spectra. The velocity-filter mechanism has been corroborated from observations of particle flux anisotropy by the Solid-State Telescope of Wind/3DP.

우주날씨 관측을 위한 큐브위성 도요샛 임무

The Small Scale magNetospheric and Ionospheric Plasma Experiment (SNIPE)’s scientific goal is to observe spatial and temporal variations of the micro-scale plasma structures on the topside ionosphere. The four 6U CubeSats (~10 kg) will be launched into a polar orbit at ~500 km. The distances of each satellite will be controlled from 10 km to more than ~1,000 km by the formation flying algorithm. The SNIPE mission is equipped with identical scientific instruments, Solid-State Telescopes(SST), Magnetometers(Mag), and Langmuir Probes(LP). All the payloads have a high temporal resolution (sampling rates of about 10 Hz). Iridium communication modules provide an opportunity to upload emergency commands to change operational modes when geomagnetic storms occur. SNIPE’s observations of the dimensions, occurrence rates, amplitudes, and spatiotemporal evolution of polar cap patches, field-aligned currents (FAC), radiation belt microbursts, and equatorial and mid-latitude plasma blobs and bubbles will determine their significance to the solar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere interaction and quantify their impact on space weather. The formation flying CubeSat constellation, the SNIPE mission, will be launched by Soyuz-2 at Baikonur Cosmodrome in 2023.

An In Situ Interplanetary “U-burst”: Observation and Results

Abstract We report and examine the observation of an unusual and rare in situ electron observation associated with a solar type III radio burst on 1996 December 24. This radio event was accompanied by high-energy electrons, measured by the Solid State Telescope on board the Wind spacecraft. The type III radio emission started at ≈13:10 UTC and was associated with a C2.1 GOES-class flare whose maximum was at 13:11 UTC and hosted by the active region NOAA 8007/8004, located on the west limb at N05° W74°/N06° W85°. During this event, the observation of an electron energy distribution likely to be associated with the radio emission was registered. The electrons arrive at the spacecraft predominantly from the antisolar direction, suggesting that their general motion is sunward along a closed magnetic field line. Leblanc et al. propose a model in which energetic electrons are injected into a coronal flux tube at one of its footpoints, releasing standard type-III emission. As the magnetic field then directs them back toward the magnetic-conjugate footpoint of the first, the electrons release subsequent emission whose radio profile is a quasi-time reversal of the standard. We have constructed a cylindrical flux rope facsimile of this scenario that reproduces the U-burst profiles. We also report observational features indicating a secondary electron energy distribution and propose a scenario that explains this feature.

On-orbit calibration of geostationary electron and proton flux observations for augmentation of an existing empirical radiation model

Challenges faced in the quantitative use of long-term radiation belt data sets include establishing their relative accuracy and correcting for on-orbit degradation. An existing empirical model of energetic plasmas (0.001–40 keV) in geosynchronous orbit has been extended in energy to several hundred keV by incorporating observations from the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) 13 and 15 magnetospheric electron detector (MAGED) and magnetospheric proton detector (MAGPD). In order to ensure the accuracy of this energy range extension, the following steps were taken: (1) removing noise bursts; (2) intra-calibrating the nine solid state telescopes comprising each MAGED or MAGPD; (3) cross-calibrating GOES 13 and 15; and (4) cross-calibrating magnetospheric plasma analyzer (MPA) and GOES fluxes, the necessary final step in augmenting an MPA-based model with GOES data. The MAGED and MPA electron fluxes were demonstrated to agree well at the energy (40 keV) where they overlap, while the MAGPD proton fluxes exhibited a severe long-term degradation compared to MPA. This problem is related to the well-known long-term degradation of the proton fluxes from the similar medium energy proton and electron detector (MEPED) proton telescopes on the POES and Metop satellites in low-Earth orbit. Results of this on-orbit calibration work are used to reconsider long-standing hypotheses about the cause of degradation in similar proton telescopes.

Extension of an Empirical Electron Flux Model From 6 to 20 Earth Radii Using Cluster/RAPID Observations

AbstractAn existing empirical model of the electron fluxes at geosynchronous orbit is extended radially outward in the equatorial plane to ~6–20 Earth radii (RE) using observations from the Research with Adaptive Particle Imaging Detectors (RAPID) instrument on the Cluster spacecraft. The new model provides electron flux predictions in the energy range ~45 eV to ~325 keV, as a function of local time and radial distance from the Earth, with geomagnetic activity parameterized by the Kp index. The model outputs include the mean and median electron fluxes along with the standard deviation and the 5th, 25th, 75th, and 95th percentiles for the given input conditions. The flux outputs from the model are tested against in‐sample observations from Cluster/RAPID and out‐of‐sample observations from Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS)/Solid State Telescope with good prediction efficiency during quiet and active intervals, as quantified by standard methods. This new model is intended to supplement current predictive capabilities in the magnetosphere for spacecraft operations, as well as providing the necessary boundary and/or input conditions for computational/physical models of the magnetospheric system when the necessary in situ observations are unavailable. While the new model can certainly not reproduce the rapid small‐scale fluctuations inherent in spacecraft observations, it does provide a coarse capability to predict the flux of electrons close to the equatorial plane, based on radial distance, energy, local time, and geomagnetic activity, in regions where no in situ assets are available.

Ion Anisotropy in Earth's Magnetotail Current Sheet: Multicomponent Ion Population

AbstractThe configuration and stability of the magnetotail current sheet, which determine the dynamics of the entire magnetosphere, largely depend on the ion kinetics as inferred from the velocity distribution function. This distribution is shaped by various transient acceleration processes and by contributions from the ionosphere and the distant magnetotail. Investigating the ion distribution is thus crucially important for adequate modeling of the current sheet stability. This necessitates spacecraft observations of the ion distribution in a wide energy range, from ionospheric outflow energies (below 1 keV) to high energies (approximately hundreds of kiloelectron volts). Using combined measurements of Electrostatic Analyzer and Solid State Telescope onboard Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms in 2008–2009 tail seasons, we demonstrate that the ion distribution in the quiet magnetotail current sheet (at times devoid of fast plasma flows and large electric fields) consists of three populations: a subthermal field‐aligned anisotropic population (contributing ∼90% to the total density but only ∼20% to the total pressure), an isotropic thermal population (contributing ∼10% of the total density and ∼60% of the total pressure), and a transversely anisotropic suprathermal population (contributing <1% of the total density and ∼20% of the total pressure). The suprathermal population may include high‐energy ions moving along transient (Speiser) orbits. The competing effects of subthermal and suprathermal partial pressure anisotropies result in an almost isotropic total (combined) ion pressure. We characterize the dependence of the ion distribution characteristics, including the anisotropy of different populations on local plasma sheet activity (ion flows and electric fields). We discuss the implications of our results for current sheet modelling.

Conceptual Design of a Solid State Telescope for Small scale magNetospheric Ionospheric Plasma Experiments

The present paper describes the design of a Solid State Telescope (SST) on board the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute satellite-1 (KASISat-1) consisting of four [TBD] nanosatellites. The SST will measure these radiation belt electrons from a low-Earth polar orbit satellite to study mechanisms related to the spatial resolution of electron precipitation, such as electron microbursts, and those related to the measurement of energy dispersion with a high temporal resolution in the sub-auroral regions. We performed a simulation to determine the sensor design of the SST using GEometry ANd Tracking 4 (GEANT4) simulations and the Bethe formula. The simulation was performed in the range of 100 ~ 400 keV considering that the electron, which is to be detected in the space environment. The SST is based on a silicon barrier detector and consists of two telescopes mounted on a satellite to observe the electrons moving along the geomagnetic field (pitch angle 0°) and the quasi-trapped electrons (pitch angle 90°) during observations. We determined the telescope design of the SST in view of previous measurements and the geometrical factor in the cylindrical geometry of Sullivan (1971). With a high spectral resolution of 16 channels over the 100 keV ~ 400 keV energy range, together with the pitch angle information, the designed SST will answer questions regarding the occurrence of microbursts and the interaction with energetic particles. The KASISat-1 is expected to be launched in the latter half of 2020.

Energetic particles’ fluxes and dose in the Radiation Gene Box measured by space radiation detector onboard SJ-10 satellite

To evaluate the hazard of space radiation posing to the tissues, it is important to obtain exact fluxes of different radiation particles. The Radiation Gene Box (RGB) onboard SJ-10 spacecraft was an instrument designed to investigate the effects of space environment on the mESCs and drosophila. To derive the dose received by the tissues inside the RGB, the Space Radiation Detector (SRD) was installed inside it. The SRD was designed to derive the fluxes of electron, proton, hellion and gamma rays around it. If the type of the particles, the energies, the fluxes and the conversion coefficients are known, the dose received by the tissues could be evaluated. The SRD was designed as a ΔE-E solid-state telescope. By measuring the energy deposited in the three subdetectors, the particles’ type and their energies could be discriminated. The data of SRD were divided into 15 bins by the types of particles and their energy ranges. The gamma ray flux was higher than any other particle flux inside the RGB, and the electron was the most intense charge particle, while the helium ion was the most harmful radiation to the cells inside the RGB. The dose rate inside the Radiation Gene Box was much higher than in the ground, but the integral dose of 12 days inside the RGB was about 2.13 mSv. It seemed unlikely to have obvious biological effects on the tissues of mice and drosophila.

Radial diffusion simulations of the 20 September 2007 radiation belt dropout

Abstract. This is a study of a dropout of radiation belt electrons, associated with an isolated solar wind density pulse on 20 September 2007, as seen by the solid-state telescopes (SST) detectors on THEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms). Omnidirectional fluxes were converted to phase space density at constant invariants M = 700 MeV G−1 and K = 0.014 RE G1/2, with the assumption of local pitch angle α ≈ 80° and using the T04 magnetic field model. The last closed drift shell, which was calculated throughout the time interval, never came within the simulation outer boundary of L* = 6. It is found, using several different models for diffusion rates, that radial diffusion alone only allows the data-driven, time-dependent boundary values at Lmax = 6 and Lmin = 3.7 to propagate a few tenths of an RE during the simulation; far too slow to account for the dropout observed over the broad range of L* = 4–5.5. Pitch angle diffusion via resonant interactions with several types of waves (chorus, electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves, and plasmaspheric and plume hiss) also seems problematic, for several reasons which are discussed.

A nonstorm time enhancement of relativistic electrons in the outer radiation belt

AbstractDespite the lack of a geomagnetic storm (based on the Dst index), relativistic electron fluxes were enhanced over 2.5 orders of magnitude in the outer radiation belt in 13 h on 13–14 January 2013. The unusual enhancement was observed by Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometer (MagEIS), onboard the Van Allen Probes; Relativistic Electron and Proton Telescope Integrated Little Experiment, onboard the Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment; and Solid State Telescope, onboard Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS). Analyses of MagEIS phase space density (PSD) profiles show a positive outward radial gradient from 4 < L < 5.5. However, THEMIS observations show a peak in PSD outside of the Van Allen Probes' apogee, which suggest a very interesting scenario: wave‐particle interactions causing a PSD peak at ~ L* = 5.5 from where the electrons are then rapidly transported radially inward. This letter demonstrates, for the first time in detail, that geomagnetic storms are not necessary for causing dramatic enhancements in the outer radiation belt.

Radial distributions of equatorial phase space density for outer radiation belt electrons

We present the first direct observations of equatorial electron phase space density (PSD) as a function of the three adiabatic invariants throughout the outer radiation belt using data from the Solid State Telescopes on THEMIS‐D. We estimate errors in PSD that result from data fitting and uncertainty in the calculation of the second and third invariants based on performance‐weighted results from seven different magnetic field models. The PSD gradients beyond geosynchronous orbit (GEO) are energy dependent, revealing different source regions for the relativistic and non‐relativistic populations. Specifically, the PSD distribution of outer belt relativistic electrons is peaked near L* ≈ 5.5. These features are typical for the outer belt, based on a survey of a two‐month period from 01 Feb.–31 Mar. 2010. The results are consistent with previous studies, which were based on off‐equatorial observations, but remove the high uncertainties introduced from mapping by using truly equatorial measurements (i.e., within only a few degrees of the magnetic equator) and quantifying the error in PSD. The newly calibrated THEMIS‐SST dataset forms a powerful tool for exploration of the near‐Earth magnetosphere, especially when combined with the upcoming RBSP mission.

Analysis of radiation belt energetic electron phase space density using THEMIS SST measurements: Cross-satellite calibration and a case study

[1] In this study we perform an energy channel dependent cross-satellite calibration of Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) solid state telescope (SST) flux measurements based on electron phase space density (PSD) conjunctions at fixed phase space coordinates. By comparing PSD around L* = 6 between THEMIS SST and Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) satellite LANL-01A synchronous orbit particle analyzer (SOPA) for a half year period starting from 1 July 2007, we evaluate systematic errors in the THEMIS SST measurements and quantify the cross-instrument calibration factors for the 11 SST energy channels from 40 to 2159 keV. Good consistency in electron PSD conjunctions between the five THEMIS probes indicates that the SST instrument aboard each spacecraft responds quite similarly to the ambient electron radiation environment. Compared to the LANL-01A SOPA instrument, the THEMIS SST underestimates the electron fluxes within a factor of 2 for the 40–140 keV energy channels and overestimates the electron fluxes within a factor of 3 for the 204–2159 keV energy channels. Using the cross-satellite calibrated SST flux data for the five THEMIS spacecraft and the SOPA measurements from the LANL-01A and 1989–048 satellites, we analyze the response of radiation belt electrons to a sudden solar wind pressure enhancement event. The electron PSD conjunctions between the THEMIS probes and the two geostationary satellites show good agreement, suggesting a reasonable cross-satellite calibration of the SST measurements. Our results also indicate a clear correlation between electron PSD dropouts and the solar wind pressure pulse, which is likely due to the combination of magnetopause shadowing and outward radial diffusion. The gradual buildup of electron PSD after the abrupt pressure enhancement most likely results from a combined effect of local acceleration and inward and outward radial diffusion that refills the main phase PSD dropout when the magnetopause moves outward. A longer-term quantitative analysis of the temporal evolution and radial profile of electron PSD based on multiple satellite measurements, including the cross-satellite calibrated THEMIS SST data, will be required to improve our understanding of the dynamic responses of radiation belt electrons to solar activity.

Elastic scattering of 7Li+27Al at several angles in the 7–11MeV energy range

Elastic cross sections for the 7 Li + 27 Al system were measured at laboratory energies between 7 and 11 MeV in steps of 0.25 MeV, and angles between 135° and 170° in steps of 5°. Excitation functions for the elastic scattering were measured using an array of eight Si surface-barrier detectors whereas a solid-state telescope was used to estimate and subtract background from other reactions. Contamination from α particles arising from the 7 Li breakup process at E lab ⩾ 10 MeV makes the use of these energies inadvisable for RBS applications. The present results are compared with previous data obtained at 165° ( E lab ⩽ 6 MeV), 140° and 170° ( E lab ⩽ 8 MeV). The experimental data were analyzed in terms of the Optical Model. Two different energy-independent potentials were found. These optical potentials allow an interpolation with physical meaning to other energies and scattering angles. The experimental cross sections will be uploaded to the IBANDL database.

Silicon Detectors for Low Energy Particle Detection

<para xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> Silicon detectors with very thin entrance contacts have been fabricated for use in the IMPACT SupraThermal Electron (STE) instrument on the STEREO mission and for the Solid State Telescopes on the THEMIS mission. The silicon diode detectors were fabricated using a 200 Å thick phosphorous doped polysilicon layer that formed the thin entrance window. A 200 Å thick aluminum layer was deposited on top of the polysilicon in order to reduce their response to stray light. Energy loss in the entrance contact was about 350 eV for electrons and about 2.3 keV for protons. The highest detector yield was obtained using a process in which the thick polysilicon gettering layer was removed by chemical etching rather than chemical mechanical polishing. </para>

Magnetopause boundary structure deduced from the high-time resolution particle experiment on the Equator-S spacecraft

Abstract. An electrostatic analyser (ESA) onboard the Equator-S spacecraft operating in coordination with a potential control device (PCD) has obtained the first accurate electron energy spectrum with energies ≈7 eV–100 eV in the vicinity of the magnetopause. On 8 January, 1998, a solar wind pressure increase pushed the magnetopause inward, leaving the Equator-S spacecraft in the magnetosheath. On the return into the magnetosphere approximately 80 min later, the magnetopause was observed by the ESA and the solid state telescopes (the SSTs detected electrons and ions with energies ≈20–300 keV). The high time resolution (3 s) data from ESA and SST show the boundary region contains of multiple plasma sources that appear to evolve in space and time. We show that electrons with energies ≈7 eV–100 eV permeate the outer regions of the magnetosphere, from the magnetopause to ≈6Re. Pitch-angle distributions of ≈20–300 keV electrons show the electrons travel in both directions along the magnetic field with a peak at 90° indicating a trapped configuration. The IMF during this interval was dominated by Bx and By components with a small Bz.Key words. Magnetospheric physics (magnetopause · cusp · and boundary layers; magnetospheric configuration and dynamics; solar wind · magnetosphere interactions)

Charge systematic errors associated with identification methods for heavy-ion Δ E– E telescopes

The contribution of identification methods to charge systematic errors for heavy-ion Δ E– E multidetector telescopes is studied. In this context, a new identification method is presented in two versions: the first uses one Δ E value and second uses all Δ E data for each event. A Monte Carlo simulation of the response of a solid-state telescope to an isotropic flux of heavy ions is used to test the systematic errors induced by this method and by the Seamster and range methods.

Magnetopause boundary structure deduced from the high-time resolution particle experiment on the Equator-S spacecraft

<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> An electrostatic analyser (ESA) onboard the Equator-S spacecraft operating in coordination with a potential control device (PCD) has obtained the first accurate electron energy spectrum with energies ≈7 eV–100 eV in the vicinity of the magnetopause. On 8 January, 1998, a solar wind pressure increase pushed the magnetopause inward, leaving the Equator-S spacecraft in the magnetosheath. On the return into the magnetosphere approximately 80 min later, the magnetopause was observed by the ESA and the solid state telescopes (the SSTs detected electrons and ions with energies ≈20–300 keV). The high time resolution (3 s) data from ESA and SST show the boundary region contains of multiple plasma sources that appear to evolve in space and time. We show that electrons with energies ≈7 eV–100 eV permeate the outer regions of the magnetosphere, from the magnetopause to ≈6<i>Re</i>. Pitch-angle distributions of ≈20–300 keV electrons show the electrons travel in both directions along the magnetic field with a peak at 90° indicating a trapped configuration. The IMF during this interval was dominated by <i>Bx</i> and <i>By</i> components with a small <i>Bz</i>.<br><br><b>Key words.</b> Magnetospheric physics (magnetopause · cusp · and boundary layers; magnetospheric configuration and dynamics; solar wind · magnetosphere interactions)

A Bevalac calibration of a scintillating optical fiber hodoscope

As part of instrument definition activities for the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) we have evaluated a hodoscope comprised of scintillating fibers for possible use in the Cosmic Ray Isotope Spectrometer (CRIS). The hodoscope would determine the trajectories of individual cosmic ray nuclei with 3 ⩽ Z ⩽ 40 and energies up to several hundred MeV/n which stop in four silicon solid state telescopes. We report on the analysis of data from a December 1990 Bevalac calibration of a CRIS test model in which the hodoscope consisted of 200 μm, square cross section, scintillating fibers, and which used silicon detectors for d E/d x - E Tot measurements. The positional resolution obtained with the fiber hodoscope was ∼ 60 μmfor iron nuclei at angles from 0–30° with respect to the normal to the fiber planes. The detection efficiency for iron and silicon nuclei was determined to be > 99% for beam angles of ⩾ 20°.

Characterization of fragmented heavy‐ion beams using a three‐stage telescope detector: Detector configuration and instrumentation

Accelerated heavy-ion beams used in biological and medical research are often utilized in conjunction with absorbers which lead to the fragmentation of the beam. The BERKLET, initially a two-stage solid-state telescope detector, was designed to make rapid, on-line energy and linear energy transfer (LET) measurements of individual particles in a heavy-ion beam, thus allowing characterization of fragmented beams. From data collected with the BERKLET, one is able to determine a number of important parameters. These include: residual energy and LET histograms for the full beam and for the individual Z components, relative number of particles with a given Z, and dose and track average LET's for the full beam and for the individual Z's. Improvements to the BERKLET design and changes in data analysis are discussed and contrasted with the results of an earlier BERKLET configuration. The most notable improvements are the addition of a thin scintillation detector for improved LET measurement, a tenfold improvement in the dynamic range of the event discriminator, reported here as 1:2000, and dual high-and low-gain amplification of the LET signals, permitting the identification of particles with Z's ranging from 12 down to 1.

Characterization of fragmented heavy‐ion beams using a three‐stage telescope detector: Measurements of 670‐MeV/amu 20Ne beams

Measurements of a 670-MeV/amu 20Ne beam at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Bevalac heavy-ion accelerator with various thicknesses of water absorber were obtained with the BERKLET. The BERKLET, a simple three-stage solid-state telescope detector, has been described previously. This instrument measures the linear energy transfer (LET) and residual energy of particles, allows the identification of the particle's charge, and provides a means of obtaining LET and energy statistics for the beam, separated by particle charge. The track and dose averaged LET dependence on the amount of water absorber was determined for each species of fragment in the beam. Large numbers of low-LET particles in the fragmented beam were detected. The results of the analysis are presented followed by a discussion of the effects of multiple scattering and secondary fragmentation on the measurements. A brief discussion of the implications of the BERKLET measurements for radiobiology is also presented.