Use Of Solid Fuels Research Articles

Regional and seasonal variations in household and personal exposures to air pollution in one urban and two rural Chinese communities: A pilot study to collect time-resolved data using static and wearable devices

BackgroundPrevious studies of the health impact of ambient and household air pollution (AAP/HAP) have chiefly relied on self-reported and/or address-based exposure modelling data. We assessed the feasibility of collecting and integrating detailed personal exposure data in different settings and seasons. Methods/designWe recruited 477 participants (mean age 58 years, 72% women) from three (two rural [Gansu/Henan] and one urban [Suzhou]) study areas in the China Kadoorie Biobank, based on their previously reported fuel use patterns. A time-resolved monitor (PATS+CO) was used to measure continuously for 120-hour the concentration of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) at personal and household (kitchen and living room) levels in warm (May-September 2017) and cool (November 2017–January 2018) seasons, along with questionnaires on participants’ characteristics (e.g. socio-demographic, and fuel use) and time-activity (48-hour). Parallel local ambient monitoring of particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10) and gaseous pollutants (CO, ozone, nitrogen oxides) was conducted using regularly-calibrated devices. The air pollution exposure data were compared by study sites and seasons. FindingsOverall 76% reported cooking at least weekly (regular-cooks), and 48% (urban 1%, rural 65%) used solid fuels (wood/coal) for cooking. Winter heating was more common in rural sites than in urban site (74–91% vs 17% daily), and mainly involved solid fuels. Mixed use of clean and solid fuels was common for cooking in rural areas (38%) but not for heating (0%). Overall, the measured mean PM2.5 levels were 2–3 fold higher in the cool than warm season, and in rural (e.g. kitchen: Gansuwarm_season = 142.3 µg/m3; Gansucool_season = 508.1 µg/m3; Henanwarm_season = 77.5 µg/m3; Henancool_season = 222.3 µg/m3) than urban sites (Suzhouwarm_season = 41.6 µg/m3; Suzhoucool_season = 81.6 µg/m3). The levels recorded tended to be the highest in kitchens, followed by personal, living room and outdoor. Time-resolved data show prominent peaks consistently recorded in the kitchen at typical cooking times, and sustained elevated PM2.5 levels (> 100 µg/m3) were observed in rural areas where use of solid fuels for heating was common. DiscussionPersonal air pollution exposure can be readily assessed using a low-cost time-resolved monitor in different settings, which, in combination with other personal and health outcome data, will enable reliable assessment of the long-term health effects of HAP/AAP exposures in general populations.

Predictors of Acute respiratory infection among children Under 5 years in Nigeria: imperative for clean, safe household energy practices

Predictors of Acute respiratory infection among children Under 5 years in Nigeria: imperative for clean, safe household energy practicesBackground Globally, close to 4 million people die prematurely annually, from illnesses attributable to indoor air pollution (IAP) due to use of solid cooking fuels and kerosene while more than 50% of pneumonia deaths among Under 5 children are linked to IAP. However, in Nigeria, there is dearth of local studies on effect of IAP, despite the high prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI).Aim This study aims to determine the predictors of Acute respiratory infection among children Under-5 years exposed to smoke from solid cooking fuels in NigeriaMethods Secondary analysis of data from cross sectional studies from Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 2008, 2013 and 2018, was conducted. Data from 28,647 and 28,596 and 30,713 respondents over the three surveys were subjected to bivariate analyses and logistic regression.Results Younger age (0-11months), household use of solid fuel and cooking inside the dwelling were statistically associated with ARI; thus the predictors of ARI in the surveys were household use of solid fuels [AOR: 1.57 (95% C.I: 1.2,1.9), AOR: 4.75 (95% C.I: 2.2, 10.3), AOR: 5.30 (95% C.I: 1.8, 15.9)] and cooking inside the dwelling [AOR: 1.85 (95%.CI: 1.5,2.3), AOR: 1.39 (95% C.I: 1.15,1.67) and AOR: 1.12 (95C.I (0.99,1.2)]; in 2008, 2013 and 2018, respectively. Lastly, younger age (0-11months) was a predictor in 2018 [AOR: 1.6 (95% C.I: 1.4, 1.8) and 2013 AOR: 1.29 (95% C.I:1.04, 1.6)] only.Conclusion The use of solid fuels in households and cooking within the dwelling are predictors of the high prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) in Nigeria. Therefore, use of clean, safe household source of energy, sustainable source of cooking fuel, use of improved cooking stoves, improved air circulation in dwellings are hereby recommended.

Public policies to promote the elimination of polluting fuels for cooking in households: lessons learned from Bolivia, Ecuador and El Salvador

The use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking is one of the main environmental risks to health worldwide, affecting more than 2.8 billion people. In Latin-American and the Caribbean, 90 million people (13% of population) concentrated primarily in nine countries still live in homes using these polluting fuels for cooking. In 2019, the Directing Bodies of the Pan American Health Organization approved an elimination initiative to provide an integrated sustainable approach to orient and guide Member States as they work toward the elimination of a group of priority communicable diseases and related conditions. One of the conditions targeted for elimination is the use of polluting fuels for cooking. This paper analyzes the public policies that have accelerated the access to cleaner energy sources for cooking in Bolivia, Ecuador and El Salvador. These countries implemented different schemes to subsidize the consumption of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). In Ecuador the price of LPG has remained the same since 2002, and in Bolivia since 2005, with subsidies that have reached 90% in Ecuador and 70% in Bolivia. In El Salvador, a universal subsidy of 65% was removed in 2013 and replaced with a targeted subsidy to the poor that covers almost 70% of the population. As a result, 98%, 86%, and 81% of the population of Ecuador, El Salvador and Bolivia, respectively, now cook with LPG or electricity. These case studies corroborate our previous findings that public policies with economic incentives that promote universal access to cleaner energy sources are important for the transition to clean energy use. Even though most energy subsidies can be regressive, this is not the case for the energy subsidies for cooking as shown in these case studies. This should be taken into consideration when designing the necessary interventions to meet the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

Modeling of Polish energy sector – tool specification and results

The focus of this study is to specify different visions of the Polish energy sector development. The first is a traditional model based on existing coal and lignite resources complemented more or less by alternative technologies (wind, biomass, PV and nuclear power). The second is deeper and faster decarbonization of the Polish energy sector. And third an alternative approach where the economic impact of air emissions is considered. Here, the optimization criterion is based on maximizing social welfare, defined as the sum of consumer and producer surplus less the negative externalities associated with energy production. The paper presents the methodology used to forecast the development of the Polish energy sector. Both the IED standards and RES limits for ‘baseline’, additional limit of CO2 in ‘CO2’ scenario and high external costs for an ‘effective’ scenario force substantial changes in the structure of energy production. The extensive use of solid fuels in system power plants should be reduced and replaced by RES sources and nuclear energy. It has been proven that, in the case of system power plants, IED standards and RES limits are as effective as potential internalization of external costs, but if the external costs of CO2 emissions are higher (€65/Mg for CO2). Post-combustion technologies are economically efficient, but the scale of these investments must be correlated with the expected path of decommissioning coal-based technologies. The model results confirm that, in an ‘effective’ scenario, old coal-fired small heating plants should be completely replaced by gas technologies, small-scale geothermal heat plants and PV farms. All of these measures could improve social welfare by 4% as compared to the ‘baseline’ scenario and 6% in case of ‘CO2’ scenario.

IMPLEMENTATION OF HIGHLY EFFICIENT THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES IN TWO-STROKE SOLID-FUEL PISTON INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES OF SHIP PURPOSE

An analysis of global fuel resources indicates that the most common fossil fuels on earth are solid fuels. Experts believe that while maintaining the current pace of their use, coal reserves will be enough for at least another 400...450 years. The low price of this type of fuel makes their use an attractive prospect for use as engine fuel for internal combustion engines. Attempts to create engines capable of working on solid fuels have been made throughout the entire period of the ICE's existence, starting with the work of R. Diesel to create its rational engine. However, throughout this period, the main efforts of specialists were aimed at adapting existing types of piston engines operating on liquid or gaseous fuels for the use of coal fuel in the form of fine dust directly supplied to the working cylinder, or injected into the combustion chamber in composition of a fuel or water-coal suspension. The first attempt to develop an engine that was specially created for the use of solid fuels and which would maximize the advantages of their state of aggregation was the work of the American engineer Joseph C. Firey, who proposed a design with in-cylinder gasification of solid fuel. Subsequently, the authors have improved this method by organizing a forced purge of a layer of solid fuel in the process of supplying heat to the working medium. The authors have developed and implemented a numerical model of this engine working process, using which a number of studies were carried out aimed at finding new approaches to the organization of working processes in solid-fuel engines with layered combustion, which allow the maximum use of the features of preparing an air charge for combustion and a controlled heat supply process to increase the thermodynamic efficiency of the workflow. This article is devoted to the discussion of the results of this study.

Air pollution in Kenya: a review

Rapid urbanization, the corresponding increase in vehicle ownership, and the continued use of solid fuels as an energy source have resulted in the deterioration of air quality in Kenya. Despite this, there is no publicly available official source of data on air pollution in the country. This article provides an overview of published studies that report the concentrations of widespread ambient pollutants, outline major themes, and identify data gaps. This review reveals that since the 1980’s particulate matter (PM) concentrations in some Nairobi locations, such as the industrial area, have been at dangerously high levels. Almost all of the studies included show that PM concentrations in Nairobi violate the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Moreover, black carbon (BC) concentrations in Nairobi are among the highest in the world, indicating the need for cleaner vehicles in the city. There has been much less work done measuring the levels of gaseous pollutant concentrations in Kenya. Based on these findings, policies to reduce air pollution in Kenya and monitoring strategies to fill in the existing gaps are presented.

Increasing heat efficiency by changing the section area of the heat transfer pipelines

On the territory of our republic, individual boilers are widely used for heating many social facilities in the winter season. The efficiency (efficiency) of these heating boilers is only 70-75%. Sustainable and efficient use of fossil fuels is now becoming a problem not only in Uzbekistan, but throughout the world. In recent years, the results of expert research on the use of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels in heating boilers show that in many countries there is a shortage of fuel and problems with the supply of natural resources to these countries. Of course, given the fact that the process of burning fossil fuels depends on the cross-sectional area of heating boilers, it is necessary to develop recommendations for creating more energy-efficient use of methods to reduce fuel consumption or resource conservation. In our republic, a number of scientific works are consistently carried out to create resource-saving capacities for heat transfer pipelines. In particular, the main content of the dissertation is the development of the introduction of the latest modern scientific methods to increase the efficiency of heating boilers by improving the method of calculating resource-saving heat transfer pipelines. The article presents methods for determining the heat transfer parameters of heat exchangers in laboratory conditions, as well as methods for analyzing the results.

The energy potential of agriculture, agroindustrial, livestock, and slaughterhouse biomass wastes through direct combustion and anaerobic digestion. The case of Colombia

In Colombia, agriculture and livestock production, and the processing agroindustry (including slaughterhouses) are a significant source of biomass wastes, which often generate significant environmental impacts. Waste-to-energy technologies, particularly direct combustion and anaerobic digestion systems are an alternative to revalorize these wastes as energy sources while reducing their environmental impacts. To this end, is necessary to identify the biomass-based energy potential from the available biomass wastes. It is additionally necessary to highlight potential applications of the biomass-based energy potential, to replace unsustainable energy sources like fossil fuels or cooking wood in the end-use energy mix. To this end, an inventory of the main crops and livestock produced in Colombia, and the share processed in agroindustry was developed to identify the available biomass wastes for energy applications. Based on the inventory, the biomass-based energy potential was calculated for the use of direct combustion and anaerobic digestion systems. The results show a bioenergy potential of 60,000 to 120,000 GWh per year, with higher potentialities for direct combustion systems than for anaerobic digestion. In particular, the biogas potential account for 90% of the use of natural gas and LPG. Moreover, using around half of the solid biomass available in direct combustion systems can potentially replace the use of solid fuels (i.e. wood and coal). In total, the combined use of direct combustion and anaerobic digestion can support from 50 to 97% of the use of gaseous and solid fuels. Using combined heat and power systems for heat and electricity production can increase the biomass share in the end-use energy mix up to 15–28%, including 27–53% of the 68,943 GWh of electricity produced in 2018.

Solid fuel use and early child development disparities in Ghana: analyses by gender and urbanicity

In Ghana, more than 77% of the population depends on biomass fuels for cooking. Previous studies show that solid fuel use (SFU) has adverse effects on pregnancy and child health outcomes. Yet, no previous study considered potential effects on early child development indicators (ECDI), nor how SFU effects may vary by gender, and rural and urban areas. We investigated the associations of SFU with ECDI measures, and whether these associations exhibited sex and urban/rural differences. We used the 2011–2012 Ghana’s Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys–UNICEF (N = 3326 children; 3–4 years). We derived a binary ECDI measure reflecting whether the child is developmentally on track or not from a caregiver-report of ten yes/no/do not know questions designed specifically to assess four domains of early child development: learning-cognition, literacy-numeracy, socio-emotional, and physical. We used multilevel Poisson regressions adjusting for neighborhood, household, mother, and child’s characteristics to estimate covariate-adjusted prevalence ratios (PRs) of the associations between SFU and ECDI and its four dimensions. We run stratified analyses and used z-score tests of differences to evaluate effect modification by sex and urbanicity. Overall, 85% of children were exposed to SFU and 28% of children were not developmentally on track. After adjustment for confounders, children exposed to SFU were more likely to be not developmentally on track in comparison with nonexposed children (PR = 1.16; 95% confidence interval, [95% CI]: 1.10,1.22). These associations were stronger in girls (PR = 1.36; 95% CI: 1.03,1.79) in comparison with boys (PR = 0.87; 95% CI: 0.73,1.04). No difference in associations was observed between urban and rural children. Overall, these associations were mainly driven by the literacy-numeracy dimension. In this study, we show that SFU was associated with developmental delays in Ghanaian girls. Policy efforts which tackle SFU should be mindful of gender disparities in susceptibility to indoor pollution.

Gender inequalities and household fuel choice in India

The use of solid cooking fuels—wood, straw, crop residue, and cow-dung cakes—is associated with higher levels of environmental pollution and health burden. However, even in an era when incomes have grown and poverty has declined, the proportion of Indian households using clean cooking fuels such as kerosene or Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) has increased only slightly. Even among the wealthiest quintile, only about 40 percent of the households rely solely on clean fuel. Since the chores of cooking and collection of fuel remain primarily the domain of women, we argue that intra-household gender inequalities play an important role in shaping the household decision to invest in clean fuel. Analyses using data from the India Human Development Survey (IHDS), a panel survey of over 41,000 households conducted in two waves in 2004-05 and 2011–12, respectively, show that women’s access to salaried work and control over household expenditure decisions is associated with the use of clean fuel.

Space heating approaches in Chinese schools: Results from the first Chinese Environmental Exposure-Related Human Activity Patterns Survey-Children (CEERHAPS-C)

Space heating is a key source of residential air pollution that causes adverse effects on individuals' health, especially children. However, school heating approaches and their impacts have been rarely evaluated. In the survey, 41,439 children aged 6–17 from 316 schools was conducted to assess the school heating approaches in China. And a comparison of school heating and home heating was made. In cold seasons, most school classrooms used district central (69.7%) and electric (23.1%) heating systems; however, 5.8% used coal-fired stoves. Similarly, in dormitories, these numbers were as high as 72.2%, 20.1%, and 6.1%, respectively. The use of solid fuels for heating mainly occurred in northern rural areas, which tended to have lower per capita incomes than the other areas studied. By weighting the data, the use of polluting coal stoves for indoor heating in schools could affect the health of over 3 million children nationwide. In regions with district central heating available in schools, 38.1% of the population were heated using solid fuel at home, indicating increased exposure when children returned home. By providing information on energy usage types in schools, this study informs the need to further evaluate indoor air pollution and its impacts on children's health.

Does use of solid fuels for cooking contribute to childhood stunting? A longitudinal data analysis from low- and middle-income countries.

Using longitudinal data from the first and second waves of the Young Lives Study (YLS) in Ethiopia, India (Andhra Pradesh), Peru and Vietnam, conducted in 2002 and 2006-07, and a repeated measures mixed model, this study examined the effect of the use of solid fuels for cooking on childhood stunting among children aged 5-76 months. The analysis showed that in all four populations, the average height-for-age z-score (HAZ score) was much lower among children living in households using solid fuels than among children in households using cleaner fuels for cooking. The average HAZ score was lower among children living in households that used solid fuels in both waves of the YLS compared with those whose households used solid fuels in only one of the two waves. A significant reduction was noted in the average HAZ score between the two waves in all countries except Ethiopia. The results of the repeated measures mixed model suggest that household use of solid fuels was significantly associated with lower HAZ scores in all populations, except Ethiopia. The findings also indicate that the reduction in the HAZ scores between waves 1 and 2 was not statistically significant by the type of cooking fuel after controlling for potential confounding factors. The study provides further evidence of a strong association between household use of solid fuels and childhood stunting in low- and middle-income countries using longitudinal data. The findings highlight the need to reduce exposure to smoke from the combustion of solid fuels, by shifting households to cleaner cooking fuels, where feasible, by providing cooking stoves with improved combustion of solid fuels and improved venting, and by designing and implementing public information campaigns to inform people about the health risks of exposure to cooking smoke.

Understanding Households' Choice of Cooking Fuels: Evidence from Urban Households in Pakistan

Households in developing countries predominantly rely on solid fuel for cooking, which is injurious to both the environment and human health. The provision of clean energy for cooking, therefore, is essential for safeguarding the environment and human health, primarily of women and children in developing countries. Using the 2014–2015 Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey and robust econometric methods, this study analyzes different types of energy used for cooking among urban households in Pakistan. The study shows that although urban households in Pakistan mostly use gas for cooking, the use of solid fuels, particularly among poor and relatively less educated households, is pervasive. The econometric findings confirm that households with a higher level of education and wealthy families mainly use clean energy, such as gas, and are less likely to use dirty solid fuels, such as cake dung and crop residue for cooking. Considering the expansion of middle-class households and anticipating their demand for clean fuel for cooking, this study suggests ensuring an adequate supply of clean sources of energy to meet future demand as well as augmenting the affordability and awareness among households who are still dependent on solid fuels.

Gaseous Pollutants and Particulate Matter (PM) in Ambient Air and the Number of New Cases of Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents in the Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland.

The increase in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) incidence in children is worrying and not yet fully explored. It is suggested that probably air pollution exposure could contribute to the development of T1DM. The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between the concentration of gaseous pollutants including, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitric oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM) in the air, and the number of new cases of T1DM in children. The number of new cases of T1DM was obtained from the Clinic of Paediatrics, Diabetology, and Endocrinology, Medical University of Gdańsk. The number of children of 0–18 years old in Pomeranian Voivodeship was acquired from the Statistical Yearbook. The concentrations of PM10 absorbance, NO2, NOx, SO2, and CO were measured at 41 measuring posts, between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2016. It was detected that the average annual concentration of PM10 was higher than the value acceptable to the WHO. Furthermore, the average 24-hour concentration of PM10 was 92 μg/m3 and was higher compared to the acceptable value of 50 μg/m3 (acc. to EU and WHO). Moreover, the number of new cases of T1DM showed a correlation with the annual average concentration of PM10 (β = 2.396, p < 0.001), SO2 (β = 2.294, p < 0.001), and CO (β = 2.452, p < 0.001). High exposure to gaseous pollutants and particulate matter in ambient air may be one of the factors contributing to the risk of developing T1DM in children. Therefore, it is important to take action to decrease air pollutant emissions in Poland. It is crucial to gradually but consistently eliminate the use of solid fuels, such as coal and wood in households, in favour of natural gas and electricity. The development of new technologies to improve air quality, such as “best available techniques” (BAT) or renewable energy sources (water, wind, and solar generation) is of critical importance as well.

Nickel: Human Health and Environmental Toxicology.

Nickel is a transition element extensively distributed in the environment, air, water, and soil. It may derive from natural sources and anthropogenic activity. Although nickel is ubiquitous in the environment, its functional role as a trace element for animals and human beings has not been yet recognized. Environmental pollution from nickel may be due to industry, the use of liquid and solid fuels, as well as municipal and industrial waste. Nickel contact can cause a variety of side effects on human health, such as allergy, cardiovascular and kidney diseases, lung fibrosis, lung and nasal cancer. Although the molecular mechanisms of nickel-induced toxicity are not yet clear, mitochondrial dysfunctions and oxidative stress are thought to have a primary and crucial role in the toxicity of this metal. Recently, researchers, trying to characterize the capability of nickel to induce cancer, have found out that epigenetic alterations induced by nickel exposure can perturb the genome. The purpose of this review is to describe the chemical features of nickel in human beings and the mechanisms of its toxicity. Furthermore, the attention is focused on strategies to remove nickel from the environment, such as phytoremediation and phytomining.

Cooking fuels and risk of all-cause and cardiopulmonary mortality in urban China: a prospective cohort study

SummaryBackgroundCooking practice has transitioned from use of solid fuels to use of clean fuels, with addition of better ventilation facilities. However, the change in mortality risk associated with such a transition remains unclear.MethodsThe China Kadoorie Biobank (CKB) Study enrolled participants (aged 30–79 years) from ten areas across China; we chose to study participants from five urban areas where transition from use of solid fuels to clean fuels for cooking was prevalent. Participants who reported regular cooking (weekly or more frequently) at baseline were categorised as persistent clean fuel users, previous solid fuel users, or persistent solid fuel users, according to self-reported fuel use histories. All-cause and cardiopulmonary mortality were identified through linkage to China's Disease Surveillance Point system and local mortality records.FindingsBetween June 24, 2004, and July 15, 2008, 226 186 participants living in five urban areas of China were enrolled in the CKB Study. Among 171 677 participants who reported cooking regularly (weekly or more frequently), 75 785 (44%) were persistent clean fuel users, 80 511 (47%) were previous solid fuel users, and 15 381 (9%) were persistent solid fuel users. During a mean of 9·8 (SD 1·7) years of follow-up, 10 831 deaths were documented, including 3819 cardiovascular deaths and 761 respiratory deaths. Compared with persistent clean fuel users, persistent solid fuel users had significantly higher risks of all-cause mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 1·19, 95% CI 1·10–1·28), cardiovascular mortality (1·24, 1·10–1·39), and respiratory mortality (1·43, 1·10–1·85). The excess risk of all-cause and cardiopulmonary mortality fell by more than 60% in 5 years after cessation of solid fuel use and continued to decrease afterwards. Use of ventilation was associated with lower all-cause mortality risk, even among persistent clean fuel users (HR 0·78, 0·69–0·89).InterpretationSolid fuel use for cooking is associated with a higher risk of mortality, and cessation of solid fuel use cuts excess mortality risks swiftly and substantially within 5 years. Ventilation use also lowers the risk of mortality, even among people who persistently use clean fuels. It is of prime importance for both policy makers and the public to accelerate the transition from solid fuels to clean fuels and promote efficient ventilation to minimise further adverse health effects.FundingNational Natural Science Foundation of China, Wellcome Trust, and Kadoorie Charitable Foundation.

Process Development for Solid Fuel Use at Siderite Ore Roasting in Shaft Furnace

Lean coal burning kinetics was studied and the main burning rate dependence on oxygen content in gas phase and heating rate was obtained. Preliminary dressed lump siderite ore from Bakal deposit with the fraction of 18-25 mm and average iron content of 35% was roasted in a pilot unit in neutral (low reducing) atmosphere, obtained by coal grate firing. It was established that such roasting allowed iron oxidation level reduction, as compared to roasting in oxidizing atmosphere and iron content increase in the roasted product. The evaluation results allowed development of a roasting process for siderite ore in neutral (low reducing) atmosphere and designing of a shaft furnace operating on solid fuel. Such roasting process is of a certain interest, as far as saving the insufficient fuel types, and predominantly natural gas, is concerned.

Greening by grain waste recycling in cereal industry

Ecologically feasible ways of cereal wastes recycling are considered and their comparative analysis is carried out. The description of granulation methods for waste is especially investigated and the most effective technical solution for the studied elevator is proposed. Grain wastes of category III are not suitable for cattle and poultry feeding, therefore, they are stored in the territories adjacent to a grain processing enterprise for a certain time, and then they are taken to the landfill or burnt. The wastes include the wastes from the process of grain cleaning with the grain content of not more than 2% and with the presence of straw particles - buckwheat, oats, barley and suction husks, scouring black dust. The given waste type of elevator has properties that make it possible to use them as a secondary material resource. Their recycling acquires an important environmental, economic and energy-saving significance. In Western Europe, the use of solid fuels - granules and briquettes - has become widespread. The main types of plant-growing subcomplex wastes in agro-industrial complex, which are used for solid, liquid or gaseous biofuels production, are straw, cut and husk of cereals crops, peeling, corn shell, flax bonfire and other plant materials.

Women’s Empowerment and Its Impact on Household Use of Solid Fuels in Four Southeast Asian Countries

Women’s Empowerment and Its Impact on Household Use of Solid Fuels in Four Southeast Asian Countries

Gender differences in associations of household and ambient air pollution with child health: Evidence from household and satellite-based data in Bangladesh

Abstract Reduction in health risks from household air pollution (HAP) and ambient air pollution (AAP) is critical for achieving sustainable development globally, especially in low-income countries. Children are at particularly high risk because their respiratory and immune systems are not fully developed. Previous studies have identified the adverse impacts of air pollution on child health. However, most studies do not focus on HAP and AAP simultaneously nor address differences in the timings and magnitudes of prenatal and postnatal exposures across genders. Therefore, this study examines how prenatal and postnatal exposures to ambient particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5) along with household use of solid fuels (a main cause of HAP) are correlated with child health in Bangladesh. We combine individual-level data from nationally representative surveys with satellite-based high-resolution data on ambient PM2.5. We find that (1) the use of solid fuels is associated with respiratory illness among girls but not boys, (2) prenatal exposure to ambient PM2.5 is associated with stunting in boys but not girls, and (3) postnatal exposure is associated with stunting in both genders. These results provide new evidence for heterogeneous influences of AAP and HAP on child health across gender and timing of exposure. The main policy implications are that interventions against HAP would be more effective by targeting girls, and interventions against AAP should also target pregnant women. In sum, our findings highlight the importance of protecting women from air pollution and achieving Target 3.9 of the Sustainable Development Goals.