Dry Ice Research Articles

Comparison of the environmental impact of typical packaging systems for food cold chain express based on life cycle assessment

With the rapid growth of e-commerce in the food industry, Food Cold Chain Express (FCCE) services have experienced significant expansion. These services typically entail extensive use of packaging items, including insulation boxes, insulation bags, and refrigeration materials, etc. This usage potentially leads to significant environmental burdens, encompassing resource consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and waste disposal. This study conducts a comparative environmental impacts analysis of two food cold chain packaging systems using life cycle assessment (LCA), for ice cream transportation. The reusable vacuum insulated panel (VIP) box packaging system demonstrates superior environmental performance when compared to the disposable expanded polystyrene (EPS) box packaging system across all evaluated impact categories. The results suggest that conclusions regarding lower environmental impact cannot be exclusively based on the choice of insulation material. The weight of the packaging and the transportation distance also exert a significant influence on the overall environmental performance of the systems. Furthermore, minimizing the environmental impact of dry ice usage by exploring alternatives is highlighted as a crucial aspect of sustainable packaging practices. The results provide valuable insights for optimizing cold chain packaging systems in the pursuit of environmental sustainability.

One‐Pot Synthesis of Substituted Benzoxazoles Using Aminophenols and α‐Diazoesters via Annulation of Amide Intermediate Using Co2(CO)8 as a Solid Carbonyl Source

AbstractSynthesis of benzoxazoles via amide formation from amino phenols and α‐diazoesters using dicobalt octacarbonyl as a solid CO source is reported. Our methodology provides a strategy for synthesizing substituted benzoxazoles with methylene linker between the benzoxazole and aromatic ring systems. Substrates with different substituents were employed to produce corresponding benzoxazoles. The synthesized compounds were characterized by using standard spectroscopic and analytical techniques including single crystal XRD studies.

Effect of nucleating agents on fire prevention of dry ice from compound inert gas

To effectively mitigate hazards caused by mine fires and enhance the antifire effects of inert gas, herein, an antifire technology of dry ice made from compound inert gas is proposed and the preparation effect and firefighting performance of dry ice under the influence of different nucleating agents and their mass are studied. Results showed that adding a nucleating agent could reduce the cold source required for CO2 condensation and increase the CO2 conversion rate. Calcium chloride possessed the strongest ability to promote dry ice nucleation, and the mass of dry ice generated was proportional to the mass of the added nucleating agent (below 640 g). When a 640-g nucleating agent was added, the tube temperature approached a minimum value (153 K), accompanied by the optimal nucleation effect of CO2. After injecting the compound inert gas slurry with calcium chloride into a loose coal body, the temperature at each measuring point in the box continued to decrease; the low-temperature area was conical, the coal temperature increased slowly after the injection was stopped, and the temperature in the box was low at the end of the return temperature. The aforementioned technology has an excellent effect on coal cooling and reheating.

Synergistic effect of CO2-mineralized steel slag and carbonation curing on cement paste

Cement-based materials have favorable capacity of solid waste and CO2 disposal. In this study, a synergistic CO2 treatment, including CO2 mineralization of steel slag admixture and carbonation curing of cement paste, was proposed. The influence of synergistic CO2 treatment on pozzolanic activity of steel slag, CO2 sequestration, and compressive strength of specimens were investigated. Results show that synergistic CO2 treatment cannot significantly increase the compressive strength but can improve the CO2 sequestration efficiently (up to 10.76 %), while a single CO2 treatment could only improve CO2 sequestration by 6.75 %. MIP, 29Si NMR, XRD-rietveld, and Raman spectroscopy were used to determine the effect of synergistc CO2 treatment on microstructure and mineral composition of samples. A barrier layer generated on the surface of steel slag particle was observed in SEM images. This barrier layer composed of carbonates reduces the early activity of CO2 mineralized steel slag.

Effect of dry ice as admixture on engineering properties of alkali-activated slag: setting time, strength, and sustainability

Alkali-activated slag (AAS) is a low-carbon binder with the potential to replace cement-based materials. In this study, AAS was prepared by using dry ice as an admixture. The effects of dry ice on the actual engineering properties, such as the initial and final setting times and compressive strength of the AAS, were studied. In addition, the microstructure of the AAS was analyzed with X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The results of these experiments revealed that the added dry ice increased the setting time of the AAS. The initial and final setting times of the AAS with 2.5 ∼ 7.5% dry ice were prolonged by 59 ∼ 122 and 118 ∼ 173 min, respectively. Furthermore, the addition of dry ice to the AAS improved its mechanical properties. At 28 days, the compressive strengths of the AAS supplemented with dry ice were 4.7 ∼ 11.6% higher than that of the control group.

A Novel Cascade Utilization System of Liquid Hydrogen Cold Energy: Energy, Exergy, and Economic Analysis

In order to effectively improve the cold energy recovery efficiency and thermodynamic performance of liquid hydrogen regasification process, a novel type of liquid hydrogen cold energy cascade utilization (RC-HT-AS-DI-CS-AC) system is proposed, which includes Rankine cycle power generation (RC), hydrogen turbine power generation (HT), air separation (AS), production of dry ice (DI), cold storage (CS) and air conditioning (AC). A comprehensive energy, exergy and economic analysis is carried out to compare the proposed system with a comparison system scheme (CSS). For RC-HT-AS-DI-CS-AC system, the energy efficiency of overall system is 79.74%. The cold energy provided by the hydrogen stream achieve 182.31 kW, which is 61.18% increase compared with the CSS. The acquired exergy and exergy efficiency of the RC-HT-AS-DI-CS-AC system increase by 119.6% and 115.9% compared with the CSS. It reveals the importance of liquid hydrogen pressurization to improve exergy efficiency for overall system. However, in the economic analysis, the total annual cost (TAC) of the system of RC-HT-AS-DI-CS-AC system is 278,400 US $, which is significantly higher than TAC of CSS. As a result, the IRR of CSS and RC-HT-AS-DI-CS-AC systems are 87.39% and 15.10% respectively. Therefore, from a commercial point of view, CSS is more worthy of industrialization.

Study on spray cooling characteristics of dry ice particles for IGBT in high-speed trains{fr}Etude des caractéristiques de refroidissement par pulvérisation des particules de glace sèche pour l'igbt dans le train à grande vitesse

Aiming at the high efficiency cooling problem of IGBT(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) module of traction converter for high-speed Train, a method of spray cooling with natural dry ice particles was proposed. The heat sinks with pin-fin and straight-fin structure were designed, and the heat sinks with optimum structure size selected by simulation were developed, and the heat sinks were provided with visual shells, as well as single outlet, double outlet and four outlet of the three different ways of outlet. The gas-solid two-phase flow, heat and mass transfer characteristics of dry ice particles in the heat sinks were studied by means of simulation and experiment. By comparison, it is found that the flow and heat transfer in the pin-fin heat sink have a good cooperation, and it is most suitable for the IGBT module with spray cooling of dry ice particles, which can reduce the temperature of IGBT from 70 ℃ to 55 ℃ in 75 s, compared with the fin-free heat sink, the heat transfer performance is improved by 12 %, and the double-outlet pin-fin heat sink has the best effect, the temperature difference of the heat transfer substrate is 19.8 ℃, and the average temperature of the heat transfer substrate is only 22.5 ℃ compared with that of the open type, which is 27.3 ℃ lower. Double outlet dry ice particles spray pin-fin heat sink is an efficient heat sink, thermal resistance is only 0.066 K/W, it can meet the current practical application of high-speed train cooling needs, solve the problem of heat dissipation of IGBT module for high-speed train, it lays a foundation for the development of dry ice particles spray heat sink.

Catalytic transfer hydrogenation of CO2 to formic acid with glycerol as the hydrogen donor over Ru-REUSY catalysts

In this work, a "hydrogen-free" strategy based on the ruthenium (Ru) modified REUSY molecular sieve catalysts was proposed, which can promote CO2 catalytic transfer hydrogenation using endogenous hydrogen induced by glycerol dehydrogenation. As the active component, Ru can not only act on the dehydrogenation reaction with glycerol, but also promote the hydrogenation reaction of CO2. Comparison experiments confirmed that under conditions of 200 °C, 36 h, and 7.92 g KHCO3, the reaction could obtain the highest yields over 10 wt.% Ru-deAl(5 h)-REUSY. The yields of formic acid and lactic acid were 19.81 % and 6.13 % respectively. In addition, when replacing the carbon source from KHCO3 to CO2 (dry ice), formic acid and lactic acid yields over 10 wt.% Ru-deAl(5 h)-REUSY catalysts were further improved, reaching 64.14 % and 17.13 %, respectively. This work demonstrated the feasibility of the "hydrogen-free" upgrade process realizing the catalytic transfer hydrogenation of CO2 into formic acid with glycerol as hydrogen donor.

Evaluation of wear test on functionally graded metal-polymer tri-laminate composite interfaces of cooling-assisted friction stir additive manufacturing

In this study, a new friction stir welding (FSW) based additive manufacturing (AM) process called "cooling-assisted friction stir additive manufacturing (CA-FSAM)" was introduced to join sheets of metal-polymer hybrid structures (MPHS). Dry ice was introduced as the coolant. Thickness variations of the raw high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and 5083 aluminum alloy (Al5083) sheets were functionally graded at a rate of 0.75 mm from the former layer. The arrangement of layers in terms of thickness was arranged in the order of 3, 2.25, and 1.5 mm. Functionally graded metal-polymer tri-laminate composite fabricated with CA-FSAM technology was investigated using the pin-on-disk wear test. The results showed that mechanical locking between the layers affected the bond strength. Cross-sectional morphology examination revealed defect-free, strong joints. X-ray diffraction (XRD) results confirmed the formation of Mg2Si; however, the XRD peak was low, indicating a slight effect on the interface properties. Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA)-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) characterization highlighted that the main evolved products during tri-laminate composite joining were CO, CC, CH3, CH2, and CH2. Oxidation occurred in the FTIR peak in the absorption band (1029.92 cm−1 to 1370.63 cm−1). Disk loading resulted in the buildup of an internal drag force that caused the dislocation/rupture of the CC or CH bonds. Defects, such as deep grooves, pits, and delamination at the interface, were observed in the composite specimen. The wear path was not visible in the worn composite material. The wear rate at 4 kg load on Al5083, HDPE, and metal-polymer tri-laminate composite specimens was 3.15 ± 0.22, 4.72 ± 0.36, and 3.42 ± 0.18 × 10−6 mm3/N. m, respectively.

Kinetic evaluation and applicability analysis on direct aqueous carbonation of industrial/mining solid wastes

CO2 mineralization combined with goaf backfilling is an effective pathway for alkaline solid waste recycling and CO2 emission reduction. Determining the kinetics of solid waste mixtures during direct aqueous carbonation is therefore important. Here, carbonation behavior and kinetics of carbide slag and its mixes with iron tailing are examined using a kinetic model based on the two-film theory. The impact of important operation parameters is assessed through model fitting as well. Results show that there is an excellent fitting accuracy to the carbonation of carbide slag and its 50 % mixtures by the model (average R2 =0.999) although a limitation is observed when the IT blending ratio is very high. Additionally, the change of gas-liquid mass transfer flux is compatible with the theory, and the ideal parameters are determined to be a reaction temperature of 65 °C, a solid-liquid ratio of 100 g/L, and a CO2 concentration of 15 %. Difference between the experimental and predicted value is controlled within 10 %. The above results are beneficial to revealing the microscale carbonation mechanism of mixed solid waste and may offer theoretical backing for industrial applications.

Estimation and Performance Evaluation of DPF Regeneration Conditions by Evaluating the Impulse of Dry Ice Spray

Estimation and Performance Evaluation of DPF Regeneration Conditions by Evaluating the Impulse of Dry Ice Spray

Influence of PPD and Mass Scaling Parameter on the Goodness of Fit of Dry Ice Compaction Curve Obtained in Numerical Simulations Utilizing Smoothed Particle Method (SPH) for Improving the Energy Efficiency of Dry Ice Compaction Process

The urgent need to reduce industrial electricity consumption due to diminishing fossil fuels and environmental concerns drives the pursuit of energy-efficient production processes. This study addresses this challenge by investigating the Smoothed Particle Method (SPH) for simulating dry ice compaction, an intricate process poorly addressed by conventional methods. The Finite Element Method (FEM) and SPH have been dealt with by researchers, yet a gap persists regarding SPH mesh parameters’ influence on the empirical curve fit. This research systematically explores Particle Packing Density (PPD) and Mass Scaling (MS) effects on the agreement between simulation and experimental outputs. The Sum of Squared Errors (SSE) method was used for this assessment. By comparing the obtained FEM and SPH results under diverse PPD and MS settings, this study sheds light on the SPH method’s potential in optimizing the dry ice compaction process’s efficiency. The SSE based analyses showed that the goodness of fit did not vary considerably for PDD values of 4 and up. In the case of MS, a better fit was obtained for its lower values. In turn, for the ultimate compression force FC, an empirical curve fit was obtained for PDD values of 4 and up. That said, the value of MS had no significant bearing on the ultimate compression force FC. The insights gleaned from this research can largely improve the existing sustainability practices and process design in various energy-conscious industries.

Mechanical characterization of subway tunnel construction in urban shallow distributed karst stratums

To address the challenges posed by rapid urban and population growth, China has undertaken extensive urban subway construction. In order to explore the mechanical characteristics of subway tunnel construction in urban shallow karst environment, based on the first phase project of Guiyang rail transit line 3, the concept of “distributed Karst” is proposed according to the occurrence characteristics of karst in urban environment. The dry ice and model soil were used to characterize the karst strata, and the similar model test study on the influence of different volume karst rates on subway tunnel construction was carried out. The influence of tunnel excavation on surrounding rock disturbance, internal force of arch structure and ground settlement under distributed karst stratum condition is studied comprehensively. The following key findings emerged:(1) Karst presence causes an abrupt change in the release curve of surrounding rock earth pressure. Higher degrees of karst development result in smaller changes in earth pressure on the arch top and shoulder after tunnel excavation, with final earth pressure changes of 91.1 kPa, 83.5 kPa, and 74.8 kPa for volumetric karst rates of 5%, 10%, and 20%, respectively. (2) Distributed karst in the tunnel arch has a limited impact on the lateral excavation displacement of the arch girdle but significantly affects the vertical settlement of the tunnel vault. Increasing volumetric karst rates by twofold (from 5% to 10% and 20%) reduces arch settlement by 48.9% and 55.6%, respectively. (3) At volumetric karst rates of 5%, 10%, and 20%, the axial force values at the tunnel top are 58.2 kN, 52.8 kN, and 50.3 kN, while the corresponding bending moment values are 49.6 kN-m, 37.1 kN-m, and 26.0 kN-m, respectively, indicating a more significant difference in bending moment values than axial force values. (4) Karst presence leads to increased surface settlement, with a 48.8% increase in peak ground settlement observed as the volumetric karst rate rises from 5% to 20%.

Local apparatus hypothermia during surgical interventions in the oral cavity

Introduction. Dry ice cryotherapy is widely used in all areas of medicine, as this method can reduce swelling, hematoma. However, there are also disadvantages inherent in this method in the form of decompensation of the vascular bed, thereby going beyond the reserve forces of the body. Because of this, it is relevant to develop and apply the method of «soft» sequential cooling of the target area, for a more consistent spastic reaction of the vascular bed. In this clinical study, the technique of local hardware hypothermia was applied, which made it possible to reduce the likelihood of undesirable local decompensatory reactions from the body. Purpose. Clinical rationale for the use of local hardware hypothermia in the postoperative period in patients after complex extractions of 3 molars.Materials and methods. We studied 60 subjects diagnosed with retention and dystopia of the third molars of the n/h (30 control, 30 experimental groups). The experimental group after surgical interventions underwent PAH for 60 minutes with a target temperature of 18°C once, the control group received cryotherapy with an ice pack for 15 minutes (3 minutes exposure, 3 minutes rest 5 times). PAH was performed using the ViTherm apparatus (TsTKh Skolkovo, Moscow). The evaluation criteria in the study were: the type of wound healing, the presence of pain, swelling, lockjaw and discomfort, the use of NSAIDs, the presence of complications. The results of the study were entered into a table, with further statistical comparative analysis. For comparison, the Chi-square test with Yates correction was used. Results. In the control group, edema was observed in 100% of cases, and in the experimental group in 87%. Discomfort was felt by 87% and 83% of patients in the control and experimental groups, respectively. There were no complications in the experimental group, and 17% of patients in the control group (p=0.06). Pain was felt by 100% of patients in the control group and only 60% in the experimental group (p=0.0004). The intake of NSAIDs was 97% and 73%, respectively, in the control and experimental groups (p=0.03). In the experimental group, 73% of patients healed according to the primary type, and in 27% according to the secondary type. In the control group, primary healing occurs in 30% of cases, and secondary in 70% (p=0.002). In the control group, complications were observed in the form of alveolitis on the 3rd day after surgery (control n=5). 3 patients did not receive an injection of DMZ in the postoperative period at the request of the patient. In 31 patients the wound healed by primary intention (control n=9, experimental n=22), in 29 patients the wound healed by secondary intention (control n=20, experimental n=9), collateral edema was visually observed in 56 patients (control n=30 , experimental n=26). 48 patients complained of pain (control n=30, experimental n=18), discomfort when eating and talking, opening the mouth in 46 (control n=25, experimental n=21); 9 patients did not take NSAIDs (control n=1, experimental n=8). Conclusion. According to the statistical analysis and the results of the study, it can be said that the use of PAH in the postoperative period in patients after complex removal of 3 molars in the lower jaw reduces the likelihood of postoperative complications in the experimental group by 100%, pain by 40%, edema by 13%, the likelihood of secondary healing by 73%, trismus and discomfort by 17%, NSAIDs by 27% compared with the control group.

Enhancing CO2 adsorption capacity of ZIF-8 by synergetic effect of high pressure and temperature

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) are promising porous materials for adsorption and storage of greenhouse gases, especially CO2. In this study, guided by the CO2 phase diagram, we explore the adsorption behavior of solid CO2 loaded with ZIF-8 framework by heating the sample under high pressures, resulting in a drastic improvement in the CO2 uptake. The behavior of CO2 under simultaneous high temperature (T) and pressure (P) conditions is directly monitored by in situ FTIR spectroscopy. The remarkable enhancement in CO2 adsorption capability observed can be attributed to the synergetic effect of high T and P: high temperature greatly enhances the transport property of solid CO2 by facilitating its diffusion into the framework; high pressure effectively modifies the pore size and shape via changing the linker orientation and creating new adsorption sites within ZIF-8. Our study thus provides important new insights into the tunability and enhancement of CO2 adsorptive capability in MOFs/ZIFs using pressure and temperature combined as a synergetic approach.

Finding the Molar Mass Difference Between Carbon Dioxide and Air

The molar mass of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its density. This property has long been used in laboratory experiments in which a flask is filled with the vapor of a volatile liquid, and the mass, volume, temperature, and pressure of the vapor are used to find the molar mass of that vapor. In a related approach, the difference in the mass between a sample of carbon dioxide and a sample of air with the same volume, temperature, and pressure can be used to find the difference between the molar mass of the two gases. Using a balance, the mass of a flask filled with carbon dioxide gas sublimed from dry ice can be compared to the same flask filled with air to estimate the difference in molar mass between the gas systems.

Calorimetry

Three “coffee-cup” calorimetry experiments: 1) Use of the Law of Dulong and Petit to identify an unknown metal 2) Measurement of the enthalpy of sublimation of dry ice 3) Exploration of the relationship between surface area and the rate of heat transfer and the amount of heat transferred Featuring contributions from Tamara Fitzjarrald

Validation and analysis of a coupled fluid-ablation framework for modeling low-temperature ablator

Ablation of certain highly volatile materials, such as camphor, naphthalene, and dry ice, can be achieved at relatively mild hypersonic conditions in unheated wind tunnels. This provides a convenient way to test fundamental aspects of the ablation process, develop measurement techniques, and validate numerical simulations. In this study, we develop a coupled framework between hypersonic flow and material response solvers and validate the numerical approach against recent experiments conducted by the von Karman Institute of Fluid Dynamics. The flow environment is modeled with an overset near body - Cartesian solver developed within CHAMPS. The solver is equipped with capabilities for automatic mesh generation, adaptive mesh refinement (AMR), and an interpolation algorithm for exchanging boundary conditions with external solvers. The material domain is modeled with a network of one-dimensional rays, incorporating a heat conduction solver, several types of surface ablation models, and a coupled system of surface balance equations required for coupling with the flow solver. The material environment in the simulation aims to closely match the experimental design of the ablating sample, which included a thin layer of camphor applied on top of a copper holder. By taking into account the cooling effect introduced by the back structure, we were able to achieve close agreement with the experimental data for the stagnation point recession and the overall shape change of the geometry. The obtained results are also compared to uncoupled equilibrium-based and steady-state (coupled) solutions, highlighting the importance of the coupled approach for modeling ablation problems. In addition, we explore the effects of different transport properties on the ablation rate of the material, highlighting a strong dependence on the diffusivity of the ablating species. Finally, using the flexibility of the developed algorithm, we explore the effect of the iterative scheme and coupling frequency between the solvers on the accuracy of the solution and the overall duration of the simulation.

Application of Individual Quick Freezing (IQF) Technology for Freezing The Raw Materials of Sambal at UD Dede Satoe

The price of chili raw materials in Indonesia is influenced by several factors. These factors include erratic harvest seasons, the nature of perishable raw materials, poor post-harvest handling, and also supply and demand at the market. This is the cause of frequent fluctuations in the price of chili raw materials. Fluctuations in the price of chili raw materials are a problem in the chili production process at UD Dede Satoe. Thus, an inventory system is needed to store and freeze ingredients during rising material prices. The inventory system is an IQF refrigerator with dry ice freezing media. Dry ice is usually added to the cooling media because the ability to absorb the heat of a material by dry ice is greater than ordinary ice media. The use of dry ice in the freezing process aims to reduce the temperature of the material more quickly due to the large heat absorption ability caused by the low sublimation temperature point of dry ice, which is around -78.5oC. Thus, the material frozen with IQF refrigerators can extend the shelf life because it restrains microbial growth, maintains its nutritional and sensory quality.

A-361 Implementation of a Fit-for-purpose Point of Care Quality Assurance Program

Abstract Background All individuals should have equitable access to accurate and timely testing for infectious diseases. Point of care testing (PoCT) has been developed to support populations having limited access to laboratory-based testing. Unlike laboratory-based testing, PoCT is often performed by non-laboratory staff and outside the jurisdiction of regulatory frameworks. Under these conditions, quality assurance (QA) of PoCT is often lacking; inaccurate testing can go undetected, leading to poor patient outcomes. A fit-for-purpose QA program was developed to monitor the quality of PoCT for infectious disease testing, particularly in low-middle income countries and in testing outside the laboratory regulatory environment. Methods In collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO), the National Serology Reference Laboratory (NRL) reviewed the barriers to participation in QA programs experienced by PoCT sites. Using this information, NRL developed a QA model specifically designed for PoCT for infectious disease. In collaboration with Foundation for Innovative and New Diagnostics (FIND, Geneva, Switzerland), Kirby Institute (Sydney, Australia) and Flinders University (Adelaide, Australia), NRL implemented the PoCT QA model across Africa, Asia, and remote regional Australia. The model consists of competency panels (CP - one positive and one negative sample) and external quality assessment (EQA) panels. The EQA panels contain five samples. Whereas the test site knows the reactivity of the CP samples, the EQA samples are tested blinded. Both panels use inactivated samples that are stable at ambient temperature. The model uses streamlined logistics channels, with data collection and analysis using smartphone technology and QR codes. NRL designed a method for randomizing the identity of EQA sample vials so test sites can test QA panels ad hoc, and not be limited to specific test event dates. A range of support material such as pictorial instructions for use, virtual training events and on-line videos were produced to support test sites. Results More than 100 test sites from 14 countries have participated in the NRL PoCT QA programs. The model is designed so data is collected by test sites scanning QR codes and entering results directly into a data entry screen. The NRL PoCT QA program removed barriers to participation by offering sample types that are inactivated and stable at ambient temperature for extended periods of time, removing the need for dry ice shipping. The program is cost effective making it accessible to low- and middle-income countries. Data is collected using novel smartphone technology, facilitating results to be entered into a central database for immediate analysis. Testing of the QA samples can be done at any time, avoiding set test events. Conclusion Implementation of a fit-for-purpose PoCT QA for infectious disease testing removes the barriers to participation and facilitates the monitoring of testing over time. Any deficiencies in testing can be detected and addressed rapidly, ensuring that accurate test results are reported, and the population protected.