Sole Width Research Articles

External Hoof Measurements of Untrimmed and Unshod Mules in Northern Thailand.

External hoof characteristics, balance, and conformation have been extensively studied in horses; however, mules remain understudied in these aspects. This study evaluated the size, shape, and symmetry of untrimmed and unshod forelimb hooves, compared the symmetry between forelimb hooves and stratified external forelimb hoof measurements based on the body condition score of mules raised in the foothill plains of northern Thailand. The forelimb hooves of 38 mules were photographed and 33 parameters, including angular and linear measurements, were analyzed. A multivariate analysis was used to explore the influence of sex, age, and body condition scores (BCS) on angular, linear, and area parameters. Additionally, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test was used to compare these parameters across different BCS groups. Despite the absence of shoeing and trimming, these mules exhibited optimal left-right forelimb hoof symmetry, with no significant (p < 0.05) differences in: outer wall length and inner wall length (OWL-IWL: Left 0.11 ± 0.66 cm; Right -0.12 ± 0.43 cm); sole length and sole width (SLS-SW: Left 1.65 ± 0.76 cm; Right 1.46 ± 0.89 cm); dorsal hoof wall length and heel length (DHWL-HL: Left 4.00 ± 0.80 cm; Right 3.81 ± 0.72 cm); and frog length and frog width (FL-FW: Left 3.88 ± 1.13 cm; Right 3.82 ± 0.18 cm). However, significant (p < 0.05) differences were observed within each body condition score group for forelimb hoof measurements for DHWL, IWL, heel separation (HS), heel bulb distance (HBD), SW, FW, and FL, while sex and age had no significant differences across the study variables. These findings provide valuable insights into mule welfare and management, contributing to understanding of the interplay between overall health and hoof conformation in the study area.

Gross anatomical measurements and microscopic quantification of epidermal laminar density of the porcine hoof capsule

Objective: To compare measurements of the medial and lateral hooves of the forelimbs and rear limbs and to quantify epidermal laminae density in the hoof capsules of sows. Materials and methods: Hoof measurements were obtained from 40 thoracic and 40 pelvic limbs of clinically sound sows. Holes were drilled into each digit to determine the depth of the dorsal wall, abaxial wall, and sole. Dorsal wall length, abaxial wall height, sole width, sole + wall length, and ground surface of each hoof were measured. All measurements of depth and length were made using an electronic digital caliper. Epidermal laminar density was analyzed in 69 thoracic and 74 pelvic limbs. The laminar junction was divided into zones consisting of 25 laminae each. Zone width was measured using an electronic digital caliper. Results: Lateral digits from rear limbs were longer than medial digits on the dorsal and volar surfaces. Both digits on the forelimbs had wider soles than those of the rear limbs. Abaxial wall depth was significantly less than dorsal wall depth. The laminar zones at the axial and abaxial extremities of the wall were significantly less dense than the zones at the dorsal aspect of the toe. Implications: Differences in hoof wall measurements in swine have previously been under reported in scientific literature. The results of this study indicate that the thinnest portions of the hoof wall may be related to the most common sites of lesions as reported in prior studies.

Relationship between anthropometric indices and Mizaj (temperament) in Persian medicine.

The process of diagnosis and treatment in Persian medicine (PM) are based on the concept of Mizaj (temperament). Among the indices of Mizaj determination, anthropometric indices are less influenceable regarding age change and other environmental factors. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between anthropometric indices and Mizaj. Four PM experts determined the Mizaj of 121 participants. Those who had ≥70% agreement in their Mizaj determination by the experts were selected and their anthropometric indices were measured. The best cutoff point of each index and its relationship with the defined Mizaj were extracted using Receiver Operative Characteristic Curve and Binary Logistic Regression. 52 out of 121 participants entered the main study. The warm-Mizaj people had larger dimensions in height, shoulder, chest, palm and sole width, and head height. Cold-Mizaj people had smaller dimensions in weight, height, shoulder, chest and head. High levels of BMI, chest depth and head dimensions had the highest correlation with the wet Mizaj and lower dimensions of these indices had the highest correlation with the dry Mizaj. Among the anthropometric indices, chest, palm, sole dimensions, head height and weight had the highest correlation with warmness/coldness and BMI, head width and chest dimensions had the highest correlation with wetness/dryness. The BMI which is more closely related to the soft tissue, only correlates with the wetness/dryness, while, bone dimensions are associated with warmness/coldness. Further studies are needed to metricize the anthropometric indices for Mizaj determination.

The role of foot conformation in susceptibility of Merino sheep to footrot

Footrot is an important cause of lameness in small ruminants. It exists in most countries and is a significant cause of production losses. While sheep with persistent footrot may develop misshapen hooves due to inflammation affecting the germinal tissues, the role of foot conformation as a factor affecting the susceptibility to footrot is unknown. Consequently, this study was undertaken to determine whether there is an association. The foot conformation of Merino sheep (n = 44) was assessed prior to infection with Dichelobacter nodosus in an experimental pen infection model. Associations between pre-infection foot conformation parameters and foot lesions that developed as a result of the infection were evaluated using univariable and multivariable logistic regression. Heel height (lateral digit), sole width (lateral digit) and interdigital skin height were significant in univariable models (P < 0.05) but lost significance in multivariable models. Foot conformation may affect the microenvironment and hence the microbial community on the interdigital skin; further studies are warranted with increased sample sizes to better understand the relationship between foot conformation parameters and the susceptibility to footrot in order to assess the potential for genetic selection.

Effect of trimming of overgrown and deformed claws in goats on morphometric measurements.

Reduced welfare and productivity of dairy goats have often been associated with poor claw health, especially conditions such as claw overgrowth and deformations. It is known that periodic claw trimmings have prophylactic and therapeutic effects on these problems, and this study aimed to evaluate if the additional use of an angle grinder to finish trimming overgrown and deformed goat claws, after the usual trimming using hoof shears, could provide further changes in these claws. For this, twelve Saanen goats (57.29 ± 11.15kg of body weight, 3.08 ± 1.78years old) were selected by presence of severe claw overgrowth, and absence of claw alterations of other nature. Their claws were trimmed in two steps, first using hoof shears and then using an angle grinder. Morphometric, baropodometric, and conformational aspects of all claws were assessed before claw trimming and after each trimming step. To analyse the effects of the trimming steps in each claw, the Tukey's test was used on parametric data, with 5% probability, and descriptive statistics were used on non-parametric data. Although this is a small pilot study, results suggest that using an angle grinder after the use of hoof shears, could further reduce heel length and sole width of claws, as well as reduce the number of deformed claws. The incorporation of the second trimming tool, could also further increase the frequency with which the point of maximum pressure was found in the toes, rather then in the heels of the claws as seen in deformed claws.

Standard measurement of the normal forelimb claw dimensions in Egyptian buffalo cows (Bubalus Bubalis) before and after functional trimming: a post-mortem study.

The aim of this study was to compare forelimb claw dimensions in buffalo cows, and to establish a reference values for functional claw trimming. Medial and lateral healthy front feet claws were evaluated from 20 young (YB) and 20 mature (MB) Egyptian buffalo cows (Bubalus bubalis). The dorsal wall length (TL), dorsal wall angle (TA), heel length (HBL), height (HBH) and width (HBW), sole (SL) and claw length (CL) and sole width (SW) were measured. Differences between YB and MB were evaluated using ANOVA test, while those between the lateral and medial claws with a paired t test. Before and after trimming, the HBL, HBW, HBH, SL and CL were significantly higher for both claws in MB, while the TA was significantly lower. Before trimming the lateral HBW and HBH were significantly higher than the medial, while the SL and CL of the medial claw were significantly higher than the lateral claw. After trimming, the lateral claw HBL was significantly higher in MB. The SW of the lateral claw was significantly higher than the medial claw in both YB and MB, and it did not change after trimming. These results can be considered as a guidance during front feet trimming in buffaloes.

Evaluation of the balance of equine hoof reared on grass and stacked in Bahia

The objective of this study was to evaluate the balance of the hooves of horses reared on pasture and sated on the northern coast of Bahia. For this, 43 horses, without defined breed, average weight of 300 to 400 kg, both sexes, 21 animals reared in the field at Campo Grande Farm in Crisópolis and at the Experimental Farm of the Federal University of Bahia in Entre- Rios and 22 horses raised in stables in the Cavalary of the Military Police of Bahia. The following measurements were evaluated: tweezer length (p), bead height (t), length (a) and sole width (b) and angle of the hull (A) of the thoracic and pelvic limbs. It was found that the animals were tabulated with longer length, smaller sole width and lower bead height, but with no difference in tweezer length and hull angle of both pelvic and thoracic limbs. Regardless of management, it was found that the thoracic limbs present higher values in measures p, t, a and b and lower values in A, demonstrating to be larger than the pelvic limbs. Although casing and ironing are used to maintain the balance of the hulls, in the present study, the animals kept in a stall presented smaller and longer hooves than those reared on pasture, demonstrating that imbalances in hoof measurements were more significant in the animals kept in stall, that is, in animals that are frequently casqueted, which can lead to future problems.

Оптимизация песчаной подушки

It is known that the stress values and the distribution of the latter in depth depend to a large extent on the size of the Foundation sole and especially the width. In this article, in order to select the optimal width of the Foundation sole and the thickness of the sand cushion, the influence of the sole width on the distribution of vertical stresses in the ground base is studied on the example of foundations for metal pipes. The presence of weak water-saturated clay soils within the construction site was taken into account. Variants of the device from traditional prismatic piles and foundations of small laying on a sandy pillow are offered. a technical and economic comparison of options was carried out. The advantages and disadvantages of each option are analyzed. Using the methodology of verification calculations in the design of sandbags, the optimization of the accepted version of the foundations was made.

An objective method for assessment of foot conformation in sheep

Assessment of foot conformation in sheep is important to study the aetiopathogenesis and impacts of diseases causing lameness. There currently exists no objective system to assess foot conformation in sheep. Based on the system of assessing conformation in the feet of dairy cattle, a set of parameters that gauged conformation in sheep are developed. They were measured in a group of sheep to assess their repeatability and reproducibility, within and between observers. Conformation parameters were compared between medial and lateral digits of the same foot. Of all parameters assessed, toe length, toe height, sole length, sole width and interdigital skin length had high repeatability and reproducibility. Most of the parameters measured were different between the medial and lateral digits, indicating anatomical or conformational differences between the two digits. A recommended approach for assessing foot conformation in sheep included manual restraint of sheep in dorsal recumbency and measurement of toe length, toe height, sole length, sole width and interdigital skin length of both digits in all four feet using digital calipers.

A pilot study on surgical trimming impact on severely overgrown claws in sheep: Behavioral, physiological, and ruminal function aspects

Abstract Overgrown claws make walking painful, increase difficulty in finding food, and increase susceptibility to foot problems. This study highlights the effect of surgical claw trimming on the behavior, physiological indices, and ruminal activity of sheep. Twenty sheep that had severe claw overgrowth were divided into 2 groups: the trimmed group (T), subjected to the process of claw trimming, and the overgrown claw group, the control group (C). Claw morphometric measurements (toe length, claw height, sole length, sole width, heel height, dorsal hoof angle, fetlock angle, and dew claws length), gait analysis, behavioral patterns (feeding, rumination, drinking, standing, walking, and resting), hematological and blood biochemical indices (complete blood count, plasma cortisol, glucose, lactate, copper, and tumor necrosis factor–α levels), and ruminal function tests (ruminal PH, and count and activity of ruminal fauna) were evaluated in both groups. The overgrown claw trimming improved sheep behavior, gait scoring, physiological indicators, and ruminal activity.

A Cross-Sectional Survey of Forelimb Hoof Conformation and the Prevalence of Flat Feet in a Cohort of Thoroughbred Racehorses in New Zealand

Racehorses in New Zealand predominantly train counter clockwise. This training pattern has been associated with between forelimb differences in bone mineral density profile and asymmetrical limb loading after training. At present, there is limited data on the hoof conformation of these racehorses. Distal forelimb and digital hoof conformation data were collected from 75 Thoroughbred racehorses (2–5 years old) from two training yards. Digital conformation was subjectively graded, and multiple hoof measurements were made with a modified tire gauge (sole and sulci depth) and from digital photographs. All the horses were shod by two registered master farriers within a median of 15 (interquartile range [IQR], 1–25) days before measurement. There were few distal limb conformation abnormalities scored. Most (62/75) horses presented with some deviation from normal hoof parameters, with 2 (IQR, 1–3) abnormalities reported per horse. The most common hoof abnormality was uneven sulci, which was identified in 43 horses and 59 affected hooves, followed by higher medial hoof wall height in 38 horses and 53 affected hooves. Many of the linear and hoof angle measurements and their ratios were within the bounds reported within the literature and indicative of a balanced foot. The length and width measurements increased with horse age. The dorsal hoof wall (DHW) length:heel length ratios were consistently less than 3:1, and the absolute difference between toe and heel angle was generally greater than 5°. Between limb hoof variation was identified for a number of the morphologic measurements including frog length and sole length and the ratio of sole width:sole length. Flat feet (lack of concave solar surface) were identified in 21/75 (28%) horses and in 28/150 (19%) forelimb hoofs. More horses had a flat left foot (10/75) than right foot (4/75), but seven horses had both feet classified as being flat. Flat feet had 2.4 (1.1–5.6, P = .036) greater odds of presenting with uneven sulci. These data indicate that uneven sulci depth and flatter hooves with may be a typical presentation of Thoroughbred feet. Asymmetry in measurements between limb may reflect the greater loading of the left forelimb when race training counter clockwise.

Preliminary Examination of Farriery and Hoof Care Practices and Owner-Reported Injuries in Sport Horses in New Zealand

Retrospective management and owner-reported injury data, and measurement of forelimb hoof conformation, were collected via a cross-sectional survey from a convenience sample of 96 registered show jumping (n = 67) and dressage (n = 29) horses. Most of the horses were medium- to upper-level performers, aged 9 (interquartile range [IQR] 7–12) years, and in the current rider's ownership for 28 (IQR 12–60) months. The horses were trained 45 (IQR 35–60) minutes, 6 days per week, on a sand or sand mix arena. Failure to train for ≥7 days was reported in 26 of 96 horses, generally associated with lameness diagnosed by a veterinarian (16/29), with a median time-off of 26 (IQR 14–93) days. During the preceding 12 months, 33% of the riders had been working with the farrier on hoof-related issues, 30% of which had involved ≤2 issues. This remedial work often involved a veterinarian (14/30) or allied health practitioner (6/30). Most horses were hot shod (67/89) with conventional fullered shoes. Uneven feet were identified in 16 of 89 horses but were not positively associated with inability to train, possibly reflecting the minor variation between feet. Uneven feet were associated with variation in heel length and angle measurements and a greater sole length and reduced sole width, rather than smaller and boxy. Multiple correspondence plots identified an association of uneven feet with the dressage horses rather than show jumping horses.

Footwear width and balance-recovery reactions: A new approach to improving lateral stability in older adults

Age-related difficulty in controlling lateral stability is of crucial importance because lateral falls increase risk of debilitating hip-fracture injury. This study examined whether a small increase in footwear sole width can improve ability of older adults to regain lateral stability subsequent to balance perturbation. The study involved sixteen healthy, ambulatory, community-dwelling older adults (aged 65-78). Widened base-of-support (WBOS) footwear was simulated by affixing polystyrene-foam blocks (20mm wide) on the medial and lateral sides of rubber overshoes; unaltered overshoes were worn in normal (NBOS) trials. Balance perturbations were applied using a motion platform. Gait, mobility and agility tests revealed no adverse effects of wearing the WBOS footwear. Lateral-perturbation tests showed that the WBOS footwear improved ability to stabilize the body without stepping (p=0.002). Depending on the perturbation magnitude, the frequency of stepping was reduced by up to 25% (64% of NBOS trials vs 39% of WBOS trials). In addition, the WBOS footwear appeared to improve ability to maintain lateral stability during forward-step reactions, as evidenced by reduced incidence of additional lateral steps (p=0.04) after stepping over an obstacle in response to a forward-fall perturbation. A small increase in sole width can improve certain aspects of lateral stability in older adults, without compromising mobility and agility. This finding supports the viability of WBOS footwear as an intervention to improve balance. Further research is needed to test populations with more severe balance impairments, examine user compliance, and determine if WBOS footwear actually reduces falling risk in daily life.

The Algorithm to Measure Crack Width with Incircle

Crack is a major defect of buildings. Digital image methods are often used to detect cracks. But incorrect or un-unique results may be inverted with an inappropriate algorithm. An image processing way is presented to obtain the sole width value. Meanwhile, the crack with several branches can be measured. In the processing, the crack skeleton is first calculated. Then each of the points on the skeleton is served as a center of a group of circles, one by one. The radius of the circles is increased step by step. The iterations will not stop until any point in the circle goes out of the crack. Thus the last circle in the iteration is served as an incircle of the crack. The diameter of the incircle is a crack width in a given skeleton point. The maximal and average width of the crack will be calculated after all the incircles with all the skeleton point are traversed. The experimental results show the proposed method can extract the width of cracks in a complex context.

AVALIAÇÃO BIOMÉTRICA DO EQUILÍBRIO PODAL DE EQÜÍDEOS DE TRAÇÃO NO MUNICÍPIO DE BELO HORIZONTE

The hoof balance of 58 equids used to pull wagons in the city of Belo Horizonte was evaluated, by measuring length and width of sole and frog, length of heels and length of hoof wall and toe angle from the four hooves. Significant differences were not observed between right and left fore and hindlimbs, for both equines and mules. The difference of toe angle among opposite members was not significant, however, 46,5% of the animals presented some difference among the angle of the opposite forelimb, varying from the degree 1 to the 3, while 41,3% presented angle diffe¬rence among the hindlimb, varying from the degree 1 to the 3. A total of 31,30% of medium-lateral imbalance of the heels was observed, and foot contraction varied from 67,86 to 78,18% to the different studied members. A high correlation between body weight and toe length, sole length and sole width. Also, 79,30% of the animals worn rubber shoes manufactured from car tires. Based on the results, this study found that the incidence of dorso-palmar/plantar foot imbalance in equids used to pull wagons in the Belo Horizonte city is higher than the medium-lateral form. KEY-WORDS: Equines and mules, hoof, hoof imbalance, wagons.

Morphology of the Laminar Junction in Relation to the Shape of the Hoof Capsule and Distal Phalanx in Adult Horses (Equus caballus)

The purpose was to investigate whether differences in equine hoof shape, which are inferred to alter foot function, are accompanied by differences in morphology of the laminar junction. Ten fore feet from adult horses were segregated into normal and low-angle groups, depending on the dorsal angle of the hoof wall. Twenty measurements of external hoof shape and four of the enclosed distal phalanx were tested for differences between groups, and for intragroup correlations. Three measurements of laminar morphology (spacing, orientation and degree of bend) were recorded for samples of up to 50 primary epidermal laminae at each of 20 sample sites. Sites were distributed over the foot in 5 circumferential columns and 4 proximodistal rows. Intergroup differences were investigated, as were correlations among sample sites of the laminar variables with the shape measurements. Results show differences in hoof shape between groups (but not bone shape) and laminar morphology. Six shape measurements are significantly different between groups: dorsal angle, medial and lateral angles, lateral sole width, solar circumference, and dorsal length. In the normal group, shape measurements show patterns of correlation among regions of the hoof, and between hoof and bone measurements. In the low-angle group, shape correlations occur largely within one region of the hoof (the heels) and in the bone measurements. Laminar spacing tends to be nonsignificantly greater in the low-angle group, while variances for laminar spacing and orientation are significantly greater in this group. Laminar spacing correlates with bone width and coronary circumference (CC) of the hoof in the normal group, but only with CC in the low-angle group. When taken as a whole, and interpreted in light of a model of foot mechanical function, the results appear to indicate a deterioration in structural coherence of the foot in the low-angle group.