Sole Thickness Research Articles

Footwear, Orthoses, and Insoles and Their Effects on Balance in Older Adults: A Scoping Review.

Footwear, orthoses, and insoles have been shown to influence balance in older adults; however, it remains unclear which features, singular or in combination, are considered optimal. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and synthesise the current evidence regarding how footwear, orthoses, and insoles influence balance in older adults. Four electronic databases (MEDLINE, CINAHL, Embase, and AMED) were searched from inception to October 2023. Key terms such as "shoe*," "orthoses," "postural balance" and "older people" were employed in the search strategy. Studies meeting the following criteria were included: (i) participants had a minimum age ≥60 years, and were free of any neurological, musculoskeletal, and cardiovascular diseases; (ii) an active intervention consisting of footwear, foot orthoses, or insoles was evaluated; and (iii) at least one objective outcome measure of balance was reported. A total of 56 studies from 17 different countries were included. Three study designs were utilised (cross-sectional study, n = 44; randomised parallel group, n = 6; cohort study n = 6). The duration of studies varied considerably, with 41 studies evaluating immediate effects, 14 evaluating effects from 3 days to 12 weeks, and 1 study having a duration of 6 months. Seventeen different interventions were evaluated, including/consisting of textured insoles (n = 12), heel elevation (n = 8), non-specific standardised footwear and changes in sole thickness or hardness (n = 7 each), sole geometry or rocker soles, contoured or custom insoles and high collar height (n = 6 each), insole thickness or hardness and vibrating insoles (n = 5 each), outsole tread (n = 4), minimalist footwear and slippers (n = 3 each), balance-enhancing shoes, footwear fit, socks, and ankle-foot orthoses (n = 2 each), and eversion insoles, heel cups, and unstable footwear (n = 1 each). Twenty-three different outcomes were assessed, and postural sway was the most common (n = 20), followed by temporo-spatial gait parameters (n = 17). There was uncertainty regarding intervention effectiveness. Overall, features such as secure fixation, a textured insole, a medium-to-hard density midsole and a higher ankle collar, in isolation, were able to positively impact balance. Conversely, footwear with an elevated heel height and the use of socks and slippers impaired balance. There is a substantial body of literature exploring the effects of footwear, orthoses, and insoles on balance in older adults. However, considerable uncertainty exists regarding the efficacy of these interventions due to variability in methodological approaches. Further high-quality research is necessary to determine whether a singular intervention or a combination of interventions is most effective for enhancing balance in older adults.

A prospective cohort study examining the association of claw anatomy and sole temperature with the development of claw horn disruption lesions in dairy cattle

Foot characteristics have been linked to the development of sole lesions (sole hemorrhage and sole ulcers) and white line lesions, also known as claw horn disruption lesions (CHDL). The objective of this study was to examine the association of claw anatomy and sole temperature with the development of CHDL. A cohort of 2,352 cows was prospectively enrolled from 4 UK farms and assessed at 3 time points: before calving (T1-precalving), immediately after calving (T2-calving), and in early lactation. At each time point body condition score was recorded, a thermography image of each foot was taken for sole temperature measurement, the presence of CHDL was assessed by veterinary surgeons, and an ultrasound image was taken to retrospectively measure the digital cushion and sole horn thickness. Additionally, at the postcalving time point, foot angle and heel depth were recorded. Four multivariable logistic regression models were fit to separately examine the relationship of precalving and postcalving explanatory variables with the development of either white line lesions or sole lesions. Explanatory variables tested included digital cushion thickness, sole horn thickness, sole temperature, foot angle, and heel depth. Farm, parity, body condition score, and presence of lesion at the time of measurement were also included in the models. A thicker digital cushion shortly after calving was associated with decreased odds of cows developing sole lesions during early lactation (odds ratio [OR]: 0.74, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.65-0.84). No association was found between digital cushion thickness and development of white line lesions. Sole temperature after calving was associated with increased odds of the development of sole lesions (OR: 1.03, 95% CI: 1.02-1.05), and sole temperature before and after calving was associated with the development of white line lesions (T1-precalving OR: 1.04, 95% CI: 1.01-1.07; T2-calving OR: 0.96, 95% CI: 0.93-0.99). Neither foot angle nor heel depth was associated with the development of either lesion type. However, an increased sole horn thickness after calving reduced the odds of cows developing sole lesions during early lactation (OR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.83-0.93), highlighting the importance of maintaining adequate sole horn when foot trimming. Before calving, animals with a lesion at the time of measurement and a thicker sole were more likely to develop a sole lesion (OR: 1.23, 95% CI: 1.09-1.40), compared with those without a sole lesion. The results presented here suggest that white line and sole lesions may have differing etiopathogenesis. Results also confirm the association between the thickness of the digital cushion and the development of sole lesions, highlight the association between sole horn thickness and sole lesions, and challenge the potential importance of foot angle and heel depth in the development of CHDL.

Evaluating the Effect of Preventative Trimming on Distance from the Sole Surface to the Distal Phalanx Using Ultrasonography for Lameness Prevention in Pasture-Based Dairy Cows.

One common management strategy used to reduce the risk of lameness is prophylactic claw trimming. However, in pasture-based cattle, there is a concern that the immediate reduction in sole thickness resulting from sole trimming will lead to medium-to-long-term reductions in sole thickness, which may increase the risk of lameness. Nevertheless, there is a lack of data on sole thickness and trimming in pasture-based cows. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of trimming on sole thickness over the medium-to-long term, as estimated using the ultrasound-measured distance from the external claw sole surface to the distal phalanx (DDP) and of DDP on the interval between calving and increased locomotion scores. A total of 38 cows were randomly selected from a 940-cow spring calving dairy farm in the North Island of New Zealand; 18 were allocated to the ultrasound hoof-trimming group and 20 were allocated to the ultrasound non-trimming group. Starting in May 2018, at the end of the 2017/18 lactation, ultrasound measurements of DDP of the right hind hoof were made on all 38 cows, and the hindlimbs of the trimming group cows were trimmed by an experienced professional hoof trimmer using the five-step Dutch method. This was repeated in October 2018 (early lactation) and May 2019 (late lactation). After calving, the cows were locomotion scored fortnightly until the end of lactation using the 4-point (0-3) scale DairyNZ system. The effect of DDP on the interval between calving and the first locomotion scores ≥1 and ≥2 was assessed using Cox proportional hazards models, and the association between trimming and DDP was explored using linear mixed models. The results suggest that DDP has no effect on the time to locomotion scores ≥1 or ≥2, although the wide confidence intervals of the latter suggest that more data are needed before any definitive conclusions can be drawn. The study failed to find any clinically important impact of prophylactic trimming on DDP. This is likely related to the finding that cows with the highest DDP at the first trimming were identified by the hoof trimmer as those needing the most trimming. The results of this study thus suggest that if the Dutch five-step method is properly applied, it is unlikely to affect sole thickness over the short-to-medium term in pasture-based cattle.

Randomized clinical trial investigating the effect of exercise and standing on concrete prior to first calving on time to first lameness event in dairy heifers.

This controlled clinical trial investigated if an intervention immediately before the first calving event could reduce lameness incidence in pasture-based dairy heifers. Seven hundred ninety heifers across 6 farms in the Waikato region of New Zealand were randomly enrolled into treatment or control groups at a ratio of 1:1. The treatment consisted of heifers walking approximately 1 km from pasture along the farm race, standing on concrete for one hour, and then walking back to their paddock. This occurred once a day, 5 times a week, for 5 wk before calving. The control heifers were managed solely at pasture before calving. Just before calving, both groups were bought together and managed as one group for the remainder of the study. Heifers were followed for up to 28 wk, with fortnightly lameness scores collected to identify animals with a lameness score of ≥2 (lameness score 0-3). Lameness could also be diagnosed by the farmers, who had no formal lameness scoring training. The primary outcome of interest was time to first lame event. Secondary outcomes included milk solid production, change in body condition score during early lactation, time from onset of breeding season until conception, feasibility of the regimen and change in sole soft tissue thickness and profile. From a total of 782 heifers that had data collected on the outcomes, 102 (13.0%) individual first lameness events were recorded, 53 in heifers in the treatment group and 49 in control heifers. Of those 102 lameness events, 51 were first diagnosed by farmers. No apparent differences were detected in the hazard rate for time to first lame event between heifers in the 2 treatment groups. Treatment heifers had a 1.12 times hazard rate (95% confidence interval: 0.65-1.95) of a lame event compared with control heifers. No associations were identified between heifers in the 2 groups for any of the secondary outcome measures. However, farmers did report that the intervention was practical and easy to implement. It is possible that the intervention did not challenge the hoof enough, and that longer duration and distances walked may have resulted in a different outcome. Although no improvement in lameness outcomes were reported, no negative effects during and after the intervention were noted in animals in the intervention group. Further research into the area of lameness prevention is needed as there are few evidence-based solutions available to reduce lameness incidence in pasture-based systems.

Lateral response of damaged stand-alone arches: Tilting tests and rigid-block analysis

Arches are a structural solution widely adopted in the past, especially when masonry was the most used constructional material. Their wide-spreading can be, indeed, found in both infrastructural and monumental constructions, as well as ordinary historical buildings. From the mechanical point of view, due to their geometrical configuration, arches mainly experience compressive stresses under external loads. Thus, given also the close-to-zero tensile strength of the masonry, it is a common practice in engineering applications to consider arches as no-tension resistant element. On the other hand, due to the ancientness of masonry structures, arched structures can often experience structural defects, such as the local reduction of the thickness and the occurrence of toward-outside support movements. In this paper, the seismic response of stand-alone arches affected by these defect typologies is investigated by means of experimental tests and rigid-block analysis. In particular, 196 tilting tests on different geometrical configurations of small-scale arches affected by local reduction of the thickness and horizontal movement at one support are performed. The results of the experimental campaign generally showed that the localized defect can strongly influence the lateral capacity of the arches. Conversely, the simultaneous presence of horizontal support movement and local thickness reduction, in some cases, can return a quite different response with respect to the cases with the sole thickness reduction. Then, the obtained results are numerically interpreted by means of an automatic procedure implemented in MATLAB®, which allows for assessing the failure conditions of the performed tests by resorting to the limit analysis concepts. On the whole, a very good consistency between the experimental and numerical evidence is obtained.

Development of an equation to screen for solar hemorrhages from digital cushion ultrasound texture analysis in veal calves at slaughter.

Claw disorders are a relevant welfare issue in the cattle industry, fast and accurate diagnoses are essential for successful treatment and prevention. The present study aimed to develop an equation to assess the presence of solar hemorrhages from real-time ultrasound images texture analysis at slaughter. Eighty-eight hind feet were collected at the slaughterhouse from 44 Holstein male veal calves. The claws were trimmed by a veterinarian hoof-trimmer, approximately 30 min after the calves' slaughter, and classified into healthy and affected by solar hemorrhages. At the same time, ultrasound images were collected for each claw. Sole soft tissues' thickness was measured, and texture analysis was performed using MaZda software. The resulting parameters from sole soft tissues' measurements and texture analysis were screened with a stepwise linear discriminant analysis using the absence or presence (0/1) of solar hemorrhages as the dependent variable. Results from the stepwise analysis identified 9 variables (among 279) as predictors, and an equation was developed and used to predict the presence or absence of solar hemorrhages on the scanned claws by binary measure: values ≤0.5 counted as 0, while those >0.5 as 1. Validation of the equation was performed by testing predicted lesions (LESpred) against the clinically evaluated lesions (LESeval) with a confusion matrix, a ROC analysis, and a precision-recall curve. Results of the present study suggest that the equation proposed has a good potential for detecting effectively hemorrhages of the sole by ultrasound imaging texture means, and could be used to monitor unsatisfactory housing and management conditions at the farm level, and for early management intervention and prevention.

EFFECT OF OUTSOLE THICKNESS ON RUNNING BIOMECHANICS

Running shoes with increased or decreased sole thickness are postulated to improve running performance, besides to protect runners against high impact forces and running injuries. However, there is no evidence showing that running shoe developments emerging on the market help tackle running injuries. In this study, we compared the effect of different outsole thicknesses: (i) barefoot, (ii) minimalist and (iii) maximalist sports shoes on running biomechanics. Fifteen male subjects (age 23.19 ± 0.73 years old) who had regular exercises for at least 75 minutes per week were recruited to participate in this study. Participants had completed three minutes of running on a treadmill in each condition. Lower extremity kinetics and kinematics were analysed. There was no difference between maximalist running shoes and minimalist running shoes with respect to maximum vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) (p = 0.221), step length (p = 0.50) and cadence (p = 0.30). In addition, we observed longer ground contact time in maximalist running shoes (1.087 ± 0.115 s) when compared with minimalist running shoes (1.051 ± 0.105 s) (p = 0.007). On the other hand, runners had significantly higher knee flexion and adduction in minimalist shoes than maximalist shoes (p = 0.046). In conclusion, running in minimalist shoes, at least in a short period, produces greater running efficiency with shorter ground contact time but may result in a higher injury risk at the knee joint.

Impact of routine footwear on foot health: A study on plantar fasciitis.

Plantar fasciitis is the most common cause of heel pain requiring medical attention. The clear understanding of the long-term impact routine footwear has on plantar fasciitis is essential as any slight changes in shoe selection could possibly prevent the wearer from substantial discomfort and disability. Thus this study was planned to investigate impact of routine footwear on foot health by highlighting different features of the shoes worn daily by the people having plantar fasciitis. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the orthopedics' outpatient department of a tertiary-care hospital in Pakistan. Data was collected using non-probability convenient sampling from 101 people diagnosed with plantar fasciitis. Their routine footwear was categorized as appropriate or inappropriate on basis of heel height, sole thickness, and insole type (hard/cushioned/arched). Data were collected using a self-designed questionnaire and analysed by applying descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests. The majority (83.2%) of the people wear inappropriate shoes, whereas only 16.8% wear the recommended shoes, i.e., with heel height between 0.5-4 cm, thick soles, and arched or cushioned insoles. About 82.2% of plantar fasciitis patients reported wearing shoes of minimal heel height and 55.5% wore shoes with hard, non-cushioned insole without built-in arch support. Participants who wear inappropriate shoes experience more severe heel pain (P 0.013) which limits their daily activities. Footwear plays an important role in causing plantar fasciitis as the majority of the diagnosed cases wear inappropriate shoes with minimal heel height, thin sole, and hard insole without any built-in arch support.

The position of x‐ray beam‐centring affects radiographic measurements of palmar angle and sole thickness on radiographs of the equine thoracic distal limb

SummaryBackgroundDifferent locations of x‐ray beam centring on the equine distal limb for lateromedial and dorsopalmar radiographs of the equine digit may affect clinically relevant radiographic measurements.ObjectivesTo evaluate the effects of two different locations of x‐ray beam centring on lateromedial and dorsopalmar radiographic measurements of the equine digit and to assess intra‐ and inter‐observer variability of measurements.Study designProspective, observational and method comparison.MethodsComparisons were made of nine measurements on orthogonal radiographs acquired from 24 unshod equine feet at two locations of x‐ray beam centring: coronary band and hoof–ground interface. Radiographic measurements were obtained by three observers of varied equine veterinary experience and made in triplicate by a board‐certified veterinary radiologist.ResultsRadiographs acquired with x‐ray beam centred at the coronary band and hoof–ground interface produced differences in the mean measurements of palmar angle, defined as the angle created by the palmar processes of the distal phalanx relative to the ground surface, on the lateromedial projection (p = 0.002), and medial (p < 0.001) and lateral (p < 0.001) sole thickness on the dorsopalmar projection. There was less variability of palmar angle (p = 0.039) and more superimposition of the palmar processes (p < 0.001) with the x‐ray beam centred at the hoof–ground interface.Main limitationsThe study population was homogeneous and only included horses without outwardly visible abnormalities of the foot. Anatomic measurements were not used for comparison due to the nonterminal nature of the study.ConclusionsCentring the x‐ray beam at the hoof–ground interface produces more repeatable and smaller radiographic measurements of palmar angle and sole thickness when compared to centring the x‐ray beam centred at the coronary band. The distal phalangeal palmar processes are more superimposed with the more distal x‐ray beam centring. The strong inter‐ and intraobserver variability support the use of these nine radiographic measurements by practitioners of all levels of experience.

Effects of Plough Layer Thickness on Soil Nutrients and Cucumber Root Development

Perennial shallow tillage (PST) causes shallow plough layer thickness, deep plough sole layer thickness, and soil quality deterioration during intensive production. Cucumber is an economically important vegetable crop in the world, but it is generally sensitive to PST. Since little information is available regarding the response of soil quality and vegetable growth to PST, a greenhouse field experiment was conducted to investigate effects of plough layer (PL) thickness on soil nutrients, root characteristics, and crop productivity-related parameters in 2017 and 2018. The treatments considered were 10 (PL10), 20 (PL20), 30 (PL30), 40 (PL40), and 50 cm (PL50) PLs. Overall, soil nutrients were mainly accumulated in 0–30 cm soil layer (55.6%–93.1%), and generally exhibited lower levels under PL40 and PL50 than under other PL treatments. The shallow PL treatments (PL10 and PL20) showed lower root volume density, root diameter and root length density, while the deep PL treatments (PL40 and PL50) showed higher specific root length. The medium PL treatment (PL30) promoted root distribution in 0–30 cm soil layer as compared to other PL treatments. Moreover, the PL30 treatment generally showed the highest values in not only crop productivity-related parameters (i.e. plant biomass and fruit yield) but also soil quality index. In summary, PL thickness played an important role in determining soil nutrient level, root growth and thereby crop yields. The optimal PL thickness for cucumber production was 30-cm, which could benefit not only crop growth but also soil quality.

Evolution of distance running shoes: performance, injuries, and rules.

Over the last 50 years, the development of running shoes has been mainly focused on improving the protection and comfort of the runner and her/his foot. Although there have been tentative attempts by companies to make shoes a tool for improving athletic performance, this goal has only recently been achieved. Indeed, the year 2016 was a real turning point when Nike launched its first shoe benefiting from the advanced footwear technology. Advanced footwear technology (AFT) mostly consists of an increased sole thickness, a curved and stiff plate embedded or below the shoe midsole, and an outsole with a marked concave shape. This innovation turned to a game changer in the world of distances running performance. Indeed, between 2016 and 2019, many male and female runners broke personal best times, national records, area, and world records in distance from 5 km to the marathon. The present article aimed at describing the magnitude of these performance enhancements in distance running as well as and the possible underlying performance-enhancement mechanisms associated with the advanced footwear technology. It also reviewed the existing literature on the safety aspects of "classical" construction shoes and AFT shoes. It concluded on a possible shoe mechanical tests-based protocol to maintain fair distance running competitions while not totally preventing manufacturers to innovate, and some thoughts on the nature and goals of further studies to be conducted to assess the safety (macro- and micro-traumatic) AFT in both elite and recreational runner populations.

Recent Improvements in Marathon Run Times Are Likely Technological, Not Physiological.

Every women’s and men’s world records from 5 km to the marathon has been broken since the introduction of carbon fibre plate (CFP) shoes in 2016. This step-wise increase in performance coincides with recent advancements in shoe technology that increase the elastic properties of the shoe thereby reducing the energy cost of running. The latest CFP shoes are acknowledged to increase running economy by more than 4%, corresponding to a greater than 2% improvement in performance/run time. The recently modified rules governing competition shoes for elite athletes, announced by World Athletics, that includes sole thickness must not exceed 40 mm and must not contain more than one rigid embedded plate, appear contrary to the true essence and credibility of sport as access to this performance-defining technology becomes the primary differentiator of sporting performance in elite athletes. This is a particular problem in sports such as athletics where the primary sponsor of the athlete is very often a footwear manufacturing company. The postponement of the 2020 Summer Olympics provides a unique opportunity for reflection by the world of sport and time to commission an independent review to evaluate the impact of technology on the integrity of sporting competition. A potential solution to solve this issue can involve the reduction of the stack height of a shoe to 20 mm. This simple and practical solution would prevent shoe technology from having too large an impact on the energy cost of running and, therefore, determining the performance outcome.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s40279-020-01420-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Prospective Cohort Study on the Development of Claw Horn Disruption Lesions in Dairy Cattle; Furthering our Understanding of the Role of the Digital Cushion.

Claw horn disruption lesion (CHDL) is the collective term used to describe non-infectious foot lesions such as sole ulcers (SU), sole hemorrhage (SH), and white line disease (WLD) that commonly affect dairy cattle. The potential role of the bovine digital cushion, an anatomical structure located under the pedal bone and composed mostly of adipose and connective tissue, in the aetiopathogenesis of CHDL has recently been the subject of several studies. The aim of this prospective cohort study is to identify risk factors associated with the development of CHDL and to add further evidence regarding the role of the digital cushion. In order to achieve that we collected data from 500 lactations; 455 dairy cows from 3 farms were enrolled in this study. Data were collected from each animal on three occasions: 3–4 weeks before expected calving date, 1 week post calving, and 8–10 weeks post-calving. At each occasion, sole soft tissue thickness (the combined depth of the digital cushion and corium, SSTT) was measured using B-mode ultrasonography. At 8–10 weeks post-calving foot trimming was undertaken and the presence of CHDLs was recorded. Univariable analysis was undertaken between variables of interest, before multivariable regression models were constructed. Mixed effects multivariable linear regression models were created to describe the changes in SSTT and associations with various explanatory variables. Multivariable logistic regression models with the presence of SU, SH, or WLD as an outcome were also built. SSTT was shown to decrease from calving to early lactation (EL). Primiparous animals were found to have smaller SSTT, than multiparous animals. Animals with greater BCS had greater SSTT. Cows with a SU in early lactation had lower SSTT both at pre-calving and calving inspections comparing to cows without a SU. Cows that developed mastitis within 30 days of calving had approximately four times higher odds of developing SU compared to cows that did not develop mastitis. Our study advances our understanding of animal level risk factors associated with the development of CHDL and highlights the importance of the periparturient period.

Ultrasonographic alterations of bovine claws sole soft tissues associated with claw horn disruption lesions, body condition score and locomotion score in Holstein dairy cows

Claw Horn Disruption Lesions (CHDL) negatively affect the sole soft tissue structures located beneath the sole horn. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of CHDL on sole soft tissues by ultrasound means, correlating Body condition score (BCS), locomotion score and CHDL with ultrasonography evaluations of sole soft tissues in Holstein dairy cows. 100 Holstein dairy cows were enrolled in the study. BCS and locomotion score were assessed and functional trimming was performed on all animals. 84 healthy claws and 174 claws with solely one CHDL per claw were evaluated both clinically and with ultrasound, and CHDL were identified and recorded. Sole soft tissues thickness (mm) and echogenicity was determined, and ultrasonographic alterations, related to CHDL presence, where measured long their vertical (L1) and horizontal (L2) axis. Statistically significant (P < .001) differences were found in echogenicity between healthy claws and all the affected ones, with the healthy ones being mainly anechoic. Statistically significant (P < .001) differences were found for vertical (L1) and horizontal (L2) axis measures between the diverse CHDL, confirming ultrasonography as a useful tool to distinguish lesions and their extension by measuring L1 and L2. BCS had an influence both on sole soft tissues ultrasonographic appearance and on CHDL insurgency.These results confirm ultrasonography as a reliable tool for detecting an increase in sole soft tissues echogenicity, that was seen to occur with CHDL insurgency, and in determining lesion extension.

Impact of high-energy diets on the rumen environment and digital cushion in confined cattle

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to identify gross and microscopic changes, caused by high-energy diets, in the rumen environment and hoof of confined beef cattle. The study sample comprised 40 confined heifers (Bos taurus) with no disease history divided into four experimental groups using different diets: Group 1 (D1, control), 48:52 forage:concentrate ratio; Group 2 (D2), 30:70 forage:concentrate ratio; Group 3 (D3), 30:70 forage:concentrate ratio + sucrose; Group 4 (D4), 100% concentrate. All animals underwent clinical examination, assessment of ruminal fluid pH and lameness, and sample collection after slaughter for histopathology of the hoof laminae and digital cushion and ruminal tissue. All dependent variables of the study were compared using the SPSS 20.0 statistical software. The variables that did not show normality (HR, RM, ST, and CRT) were compared with application of the Kruskal-Wallis test followed by the Dunnet’s multiple comparison test. All other variables were submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s test. The different diets had an impact on the rumen environment (p&lt;0.05) of the heifers assessed, with momentary general depression in the first 12 h after sucrose induction (D3), as well as mild clinical signs in D4. The animals in D3 and D4 presented lower motility (p&lt;0.05) and ruminal pH (p&lt;0.01) than those in D1. Of the 40 heifers, 27.5% (n=11) showed gross lesions in the epithelium of ruminal pillars, whereas 22.5% (n=9) of those in D3 and D4 presented these lesions. Sole corium thickness varied between heifers in D3 compared with those in D1 and D2 (p&lt;0.05). Therefore, high-energy diets, as used in this study, alter some clinical parameters and the rumen environment, causing lesions in the rumen mucosa, and of lesser intensity, in the hoof corium and laminae, suggestive of laminitis.

Prevalence of thin soles in the hind limbs of dairy cows housed on fully-floored vs. partially-floored mastic asphalt areas in Austria

Excessive sole horn wear in cattle due to abrasive floors, such as new concrete and mastic asphalt, and excessive sole trimming, are the leading causes of thin soles. This study compared prevalence of thin soles in Austrian dairy cows in six herds housed on fully-floored mastic asphalt (FMA) or partially-floored mastic asphalt (PMA). All cows had last received hoof trimming at least 5 months before the study commenced. Sole horn thickness of the hind claws was measured ultrasonographically in 97 cows at two points on each claw: (1) point 1 exactly at the tip of the pedal bone surface; and (2) point 2 approximately 3cm caudally. Locomotion was scored in all cows and claw lesions were categorised using a computerized claw trimming database program and evaluated at cow- and claw-level. An ANCOVA-model was applied to calculate the effects of different factors (breed, age, farm, days in milk) and covariates on sole horn thickness. The cut-off measurement for thin soles was defined as ≤4.5mm, in accordance with a recent study.Regarding claw health, FMA areas were inferior to PMA areas in barn installations. In cows on FMA, the prevalence of thin soles was significantly higher (P=0.01) and mean sole horn thickness at point 1 was significantly lower (P=0.01) than cows on PMA (59.7% vs. 12.5%; 5.35 mm vs. 6.63 mm, respectively). There were also significantly more lame cows on FMA than on PMA (P=0.01). The FMA group had higher prevalences of white-line disease (59.6% vs. 25%; P=0.01) and toe ulcers (12.3% vs. 0%; P=0.02) than the PMA group.

Reliability of ultrasonographic measurements of bovine sole structures in relation to sole horn thickness, measured by computed tomography, and sole horn hardness

The goal of the present study was to determine the effect of sole horn thickness (SHT) and sole horn hardness (SHD) on ultrasonographic visualization of sole structures in the inner and outer claws of 150 Holstein-Friesian cows, and to evaluate different ultrasound frequencies for this purpose. Ultrasonographic views of the sole structure were considered complete when 3 echogenic lines, representing the ventral surface of the sole horn, the borders of the sole horn and soft-tissue layer, and the ventral surface of the distal phalanx, were seen. The proportion of complete ultrasonographic views of the sole structures, designated as the ultrasonographic visualization proportion (UVP), and the measurement errors of SHT were evaluated by comparing images from computed tomography (CT) and ultrasonography. The latter images were generated using 3 different probes, frequencies of 6.5 and 5.0 MHz, and 2 different ultrasound machines (#1 and #2) to assess the apex, middle, and heel regions of the claws. The UVP were 60.8 to 77.9% for the 6.5-MHz probe in ultrasound machine #1 (probe A), which were lower than those (>90%) for both the 5.0-MHz probe in ultrasound machine #1 (probe B) and the 5.0-MHz probe in ultrasound machine #2 (probe C). The UVP was significantly lower in claws with an SHD ≥50 units than in claws with an SHD <40 or 40 to <50 units (UVP: 77.1% compared with 93.7 and 91.4%, respectively) when measured with probe B. In claws with an SHT <10 mm, the UVP was significantly lower when SHD was ≥50 units compared with <40 or 40 to >50 units; the values were 69.0% versus 91.3 and 85.9%, respectively, for probe A, and 89.7% versus 100 and 100%, respectively, for probe B. When SHT were measured by either probes A or B in ultrasound machine #1, the proportions of claws in which ultrasonographic values were within a ±1 mm range compared with the values obtained by CT were 84.9 to 91.3% for CT-determined SHT <5 mm, 66.7 to 71.9% for CT-determined SHT 5 to <7 mm, 28.9 to 51.2% for CT-determined SHT 7 to <10 mm, and 6.2 to 19.7% for CT-determined SHT ≥10 mm. The data indicated that increased SHT was associated with a decrease in ultrasonographic measurement accuracy. In claws with an SHT <5 mm, the high proportion of ultrasonographic values that were accurate within a ±1 mm range suggests that this imaging modality would be useful in cows with thin soles.

A preference test on shoes with varied distributions of masses

This study investigated the results of a preference test based on wearers’ responses to the comfort of shoes with varied distributions of masses in pairwise comparisons. The pairwise comparisons were conducted by 50 male participants and 50 female participants to find the pair of shoes they liked most from among five pairs of tested shoes (shoes A–shoes E), according to their perceived shoe comfort. Given varied distribution of added masses of total 200 g to the front end and/or the rear end of each tested shoe, the centre of gravity (COG) of each tested shoe shifted to a different position. The first test began with a comparison between pair A and pair E, since the two pairs were of the largest difference in terms of the position of COG. As the pairwise comparisons continued on, the difference in the position of COG between two pairs of tested shoes became smaller and smaller. After completing the four comparisons, the most preferred pair was chosen. Most participants preferred rear-weighted shoes, probably because they felt that a shoe was lighter when the position of COG was closer to the rear end of the shoe or because they were affected by the characteristics of the shoes they usually wore. In general, the preference test is a fast, highly reliable approach to shoe comfort assessment, especially when systematic changes are made to the characteristics of shoes, such as shoe weight, sole thickness, and sole hardness.

Ultrasonographical examination of bovine claws through the sole horn on weight-bearing claws

Claw horn disruptions in the bovine claw are believed to be a consequence of pressure on the sole corium from the third phalanx, which may be caused by a weakening of the suspensory apparatus in the claw. We aimed to develop an ultrasonographic method that would make it possible to measure the thickness of the soft tissue between the third phalanx and the sole horn on a weight-bearing claw. A device was developed to record the sole horn and soft tissue thickness indirectly through a polyethylene plate, and 52 feet from slaughtered cows were examined using ultrasonography, both directly and indirectly. Soft tissue and sole horn thickness measurements in the apex and the plantar part of the sole were compared with anatomical measurements of transected claws. To assess the method on weight-bearing versus non-weight-bearing claws, we examined the hind claws of 10 live cattle without transection. We found a weak correlation between the soft tissue thickness measured by ultrasound and anatomical measurements. A strong correlation was observed between the direct ultrasound approach and the developed indirect method. There was a considerable difference between weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing claws, signifying a weak or nonexistent correlation. However, this part of the study was only done on 10 live cows and the results should be interpreted with caution. We concluded that it would be possible to measure the soft tissue using an indirect ultrasound approach on a weight-bearing-claw standing on a polyethylene plate. The major difference between the results of weight-bearing versus non-weight-bearing claws suggests that future studies of the suspensory apparatus could focus on weight-bearing claws.

Simulation of internal stress waves generated by laser-induced damage in multilayer dielectric gratings.

Multilayer dielectric (MLD) gratings used in ultrahigh-intensity laser systems often exhibit a laser-induced damage performance below that of their constituent materials. Reduced performance may arise from fabrication- and/or design-related issues. Finite element models were developed to simulate stress waves in MLD grating structures generated by laser-induced damage events. These models specifically investigate the influence of geometric and material parameters on how stress waves can lead to degradation of material structural integrity that can have adverse effects on its optical performance under subsequent laser irradiation: closer impedance matching of the layer materials reduces maximum interface stresses by ~20% to 30%; increasing sole thickness from 50 nm to 500 nm reduces maximum interface stresses by ~50%.