Sole Breadwinner Research Articles

‘Who should do the caring’? Involved fatherhood and ambivalent gendered moral rationalities among cohabiting/married irish parents

Drawing on qualitative couple interviews with cohabiting/married mothers and fathers, this paper examines accounts of involved fatherhood in contemporary Ireland. It shows that while the ideal of fathers as heavily involved in day-to-day parenting is widespread, the reality is somewhat different – and this despite increased participation of Irish mothers in the labour market. Given this mismatch between fatherhood ideals and realities, it begs the question: how do we account for this inequitable division of family work? Gender-differentiated parenting experiences, I argue, are strongly influenced by ambivalent attitudes on the part of both fathers and mothers. I argue that mothers draw on ‘primarily mother’ moral rationalities that associates ‘good’ mothering with large amounts of time in direct provision of childcare, while fathers display a ‘primarily worker’ rationality associated with strong commitment to the labour market. It is the clash of these contrasting normative societal demands that gives rise to a pervasive sense of ambivalence about ‘who should do the caring’. This ambivalence, I demonstrate, is especially prominent in single-income families where the father is the sole breadwinner. In dual-income families, several parents go some distance towards reconciling these contradictory claims, these competing moral discourses.

Palestine: Children Laboring

Palestine: Children Laboring

Global policy and local actions for vulnerable populations affected by disaster and displacement

Global policy and local actions for vulnerable populations affected by disaster and displacement

Exploring Single Parenting Process in Malaysia: Issues and Coping Strategies

Parents play a significant role in shaping the emotional and personality development of their children. However, single parents encounter double major roles, i.e. the parenting role and the role of a sole breadwinner for their family. This double role, leads a single working mother into having social and psychological problems. Previous studies reported occurrences of depression and emotional distress among children of single parents, high risks of school drop-outs, substance abuse, premarital sex and teenage pregnancies as well as neglected children. Single parents were found physically, mentally and emotionally unprepared which lead to a collapse of the family structure. Hence, through series of interviews, we explored and validated the coping strategies adopted by a sample of single Malay working widows and divorcees. The result of this study as well as previous studies indicated the importance of social support system in helping the single Malay working women effectively.

The Sustainability of Dual Earner at the Workplace in Malaysia

Malaysia has moved away from the sole breadwinner towards a dual breadwinner paradigm. Important criterion of success for such new paradigm is the integration of women and particularly of mothers, into the labor force. According to statistics compiled by the Statistics Department of Malaysia (1970, 1980, 1991 & 2003) and Malaysia 2006, about 30.8 percent of women make-up the labor force in 1970. The percentage started to increase to 35.1 percent in 1980, decreased slightly to 33.5 percent in 1991and increased to 36.7 percent in 2005. As for the male labor force, the pattern was the same, whereby the rate was 69.2 percent in 1970, decreased to 64.9 percent in 1980, increased again to 67.9 percent in 1991, but dropped to 63.3 percent in 2005. The demographic shifts have resulted from the economic changes that requires most families to have two incomes for economic viability and from the women’s desire to have both an active and fulfilling family life as well as a career. Men have begun to do slightly more household and childcare tasks as women are involved in employment. This article will highlight the strategies to sustain the dual earner in the workplace.

Mind the Gap: Net Incomes of Minimum Wage Workers in the EU and the US

This paper focuses on the role of minimum wages, tax and benefit policies in protecting workers against financial poverty, covering 21 European countries with a national minimum wage and three US States (New Jersey, Nebraska and Texas). It is shown that only for single persons and only in a number of countries, net income packages at minimum wage level reach or exceed the EU's at-risk-of poverty threshold, set at 60 per cent of median equivalent household income in each country. For lone parents and sole breadwinners with a partner and children to support, net income packages at minimum wage are below this threshold almost everywhere, usually by a wide margin. This is the case despite shifts over the past decade towards tax relief and additional income support provisions for low-paid workers. We argue that there appear to be limits to what minimum wage policies alone can achieve in the fight against in-work poverty. The route of raising minimum wages to eliminate poverty among workers solely reliant on it seems to be inherently constrained, especially in countries where the distance between minimum and average wage levels is already comparatively small and where relative poverty thresholds are mostly a function of the dual-earner living standards. In order to fight in-work poverty new policy routes need to be explored. The paper offers a brief discussion of possible alternatives and cautions against 'one size fits all' policy solutions.

HOW FEMALE STUDENTS COPE WITH STUDIES IN OUHK

In traditional Chinese society, women's subordination is mainly due to their confinement to the home and dependence on the males as the sole breadwinner. Nowadays in Hong Kong, many people think that the inequality gap between men and women, an remnant from this patriarchal tradition, still exists

Prevalence of Parent-Rated Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Associated Parent-Related Factors in Primary School Children of Navi Mumbai—A School Based Study

To study the prevalence of parent-rated attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated parent-related factors in primary school children of Navi Mumbai. One hundred twenty two children including both boys and girls aged between 6 y and 11 y were selected from a school at Navi Mumbai and their parents were given the National Innovative for Children's Healthcare Quality (NICHQ) Vanderbilt Assessment Scale to be filled and returned, which was subsequently analyzed using SPSS (version 16). The prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder was 12.3 % with boy to girl ratio of 3:2. It was more prevalent in nuclear type of family and in families where a single parent was working especially where the father was the sole breadwinner and doing semi-skilled or unskilled type of work. No significant relation was found between the numbers of work-related hours when parents were away from children and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is prevalent in the primary school-going population of Navi Mumbai, especially in boys. The increased prevalence in nuclear families and families with single working parent should further be explored. Further studies with larger sample size and longer period of follow up may be recommended. The study also recommends screening of school children for symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) for early diagnosis and treatment.

Economic Impact of Alcoholic Cirrhosis and Its Disability Adjusted Life Years

© 2011, INASL 19 Prevalence of Infection Among Patients of Chronic Parenchymal Liver Disease and Its Sensitivity Pattern S Shetty, R Kothari, D Prasanna, M Pazhanivel Department of Gastroenterology, PSG IMS and R, Coimbatore Background: Bacterial infection is a frequent complication in patients with chronic liver disease. Infection can prove fatal, either directly or by precipitating encephalopathy, gastrointestinal hemorrhage or renal failure. Often, recognition of infection is made difficult by absence of clinical features like fever, hypotension or leukocytosis. Therefore, early identification, by means of culture of body fluids, will reduce hospital stay, morbidity and mortality in chronic liver disease patients. Aim: To determine the prevalence of infections in cirrhotic patients and to study their sensitivity pattern. Methods: Cirrhotic patients admitted over the last 3 months, who had not received antimicrobial therapy in the previous 7 days, were included. Blood, urine and ascitic fluid cultures were performed on the day of admission. Results: Of the 41 patients included in the study group, 21 (51%) were found to have culture positive infection. Among these, 6 patients had polymicrobial infection. One patient was found to have fungal infection. A total of 28 organisms were cultured, of which 16 (57%) were found to be resistant to the commonly used antibiotics, i.e. 3rd generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones. Table Prevalence of infection Microorganism Sensitive Resistant Escherichia coli (ESBL) 4 8 Staphylococcus 2 2 Citrobacter freundii 0 1 Klebsiella pneumoniae 1 1 Streptococcus 0 1 Acinetobacter baumannii 2 0 Enterococcus faecalis 1 3 Gram negative bacilli 2 0 Conclusion: The present study shows a high prevalence of bacterial infections among patients of chronic parenchymal liver disease. Also, a majority of these infections are by drug-resistant strains, which further increases cost of treatment. Conflict of Interest: None Economic Impact of Alcoholic Cirrhosis and Its Disability Adjusted Life Years Shareej*, AR Rajneesh*, B George#, TM Ramachandran†, T Varghese‡ *Senior Resident, #Assistant Professor, Department of Community Medicine, †Additional Professor of Gastroenterology ‡Professor and Head of Department of Gastroenterology Background: Alcohol abuse and related disorders are on the rise recently so also related complications. Society is spending huge amount of money to treat these preventable diseases. Kerala has the highest per capita alcohol consumption in India. Aim: To analyze the average cost of treatment and disability adjusted life years of alcohol-related cirrhosis. Method: This prospective analytical study was done over a period of 1 year from January 2010 to December 2010 by interviewing patients with alcoholic cirrhosis, their relatives and friends. Results: Total number 111. Mean age 45.29. The average family income was Rs. 5902.2 ± 4099. 101 (90.9%) patients were the sole bread winner of the family. Educational status of patients were primary 15 (13.5%), middle 26 (23.4%), secondary 34 (30.6%), higher secondary 16 (14.4%), college 14 (12.6%), and professionals 6 (5.40%). Ninety eight (88.3%) patients consumed alcohol daily. Eighty two (73.9%) consumed bandy, 69 (62.2%) whiskey, 54 (48.6%) beer, 50 (45%) rum, 10 (9%) gin, 1 (0.9%) wine, 37 (33%), illicit arrack 39 (35%) toddy and majority were consuming more than two types. Mean duration of alcohol consumption was 20.72 years and daily intake 116.48 g. Mean age of beginning of regular consumption 22.51. 70% of daily income was spent for alcohol by the low income group and 50% by the middle income group. Mean age of detection of cirrhosis 42.69. Mean MELD score 17.5 ± 6.3. Mean no. of hospital admission was 4.80 ± 3.8. Mean duration of hospital stay was 8.91 ± 5.7 days. Mean no. of OPD visits was 8.78. Mean hospital expenses were Rs. 8769.37, for liver related drugs 4410, day to day expenses 13841, and procedure expenses 2407.8. There were 16 deaths in the study 03_JCEH-Abstract.indd 19 3/18/2011 11:13:04 AM

Prevalence of Infection Among Patients of Chronic Parenchymal Liver Disease and Its Sensitivity Pattern

© 2011, INASL 19 Prevalence of Infection Among Patients of Chronic Parenchymal Liver Disease and Its Sensitivity Pattern S Shetty, R Kothari, D Prasanna, M Pazhanivel Department of Gastroenterology, PSG IMS and R, Coimbatore Background: Bacterial infection is a frequent complication in patients with chronic liver disease. Infection can prove fatal, either directly or by precipitating encephalopathy, gastrointestinal hemorrhage or renal failure. Often, recognition of infection is made difficult by absence of clinical features like fever, hypotension or leukocytosis. Therefore, early identification, by means of culture of body fluids, will reduce hospital stay, morbidity and mortality in chronic liver disease patients. Aim: To determine the prevalence of infections in cirrhotic patients and to study their sensitivity pattern. Methods: Cirrhotic patients admitted over the last 3 months, who had not received antimicrobial therapy in the previous 7 days, were included. Blood, urine and ascitic fluid cultures were performed on the day of admission. Results: Of the 41 patients included in the study group, 21 (51%) were found to have culture positive infection. Among these, 6 patients had polymicrobial infection. One patient was found to have fungal infection. A total of 28 organisms were cultured, of which 16 (57%) were found to be resistant to the commonly used antibiotics, i.e. 3rd generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones. Table Prevalence of infection Microorganism Sensitive Resistant Escherichia coli (ESBL) 4 8 Staphylococcus 2 2 Citrobacter freundii 0 1 Klebsiella pneumoniae 1 1 Streptococcus 0 1 Acinetobacter baumannii 2 0 Enterococcus faecalis 1 3 Gram negative bacilli 2 0 Conclusion: The present study shows a high prevalence of bacterial infections among patients of chronic parenchymal liver disease. Also, a majority of these infections are by drug-resistant strains, which further increases cost of treatment. Conflict of Interest: None Economic Impact of Alcoholic Cirrhosis and Its Disability Adjusted Life Years Shareej*, AR Rajneesh*, B George#, TM Ramachandran†, T Varghese‡ *Senior Resident, #Assistant Professor, Department of Community Medicine, †Additional Professor of Gastroenterology ‡Professor and Head of Department of Gastroenterology Background: Alcohol abuse and related disorders are on the rise recently so also related complications. Society is spending huge amount of money to treat these preventable diseases. Kerala has the highest per capita alcohol consumption in India. Aim: To analyze the average cost of treatment and disability adjusted life years of alcohol-related cirrhosis. Method: This prospective analytical study was done over a period of 1 year from January 2010 to December 2010 by interviewing patients with alcoholic cirrhosis, their relatives and friends. Results: Total number 111. Mean age 45.29. The average family income was Rs. 5902.2 ± 4099. 101 (90.9%) patients were the sole bread winner of the family. Educational status of patients were primary 15 (13.5%), middle 26 (23.4%), secondary 34 (30.6%), higher secondary 16 (14.4%), college 14 (12.6%), and professionals 6 (5.40%). Ninety eight (88.3%) patients consumed alcohol daily. Eighty two (73.9%) consumed bandy, 69 (62.2%) whiskey, 54 (48.6%) beer, 50 (45%) rum, 10 (9%) gin, 1 (0.9%) wine, 37 (33%), illicit arrack 39 (35%) toddy and majority were consuming more than two types. Mean duration of alcohol consumption was 20.72 years and daily intake 116.48 g. Mean age of beginning of regular consumption 22.51. 70% of daily income was spent for alcohol by the low income group and 50% by the middle income group. Mean age of detection of cirrhosis 42.69. Mean MELD score 17.5 ± 6.3. Mean no. of hospital admission was 4.80 ± 3.8. Mean duration of hospital stay was 8.91 ± 5.7 days. Mean no. of OPD visits was 8.78. Mean hospital expenses were Rs. 8769.37, for liver related drugs 4410, day to day expenses 13841, and procedure expenses 2407.8. There were 16 deaths in the study 03_JCEH-Abstract.indd 19 3/18/2011 11:13:04 AM

The perceived justice of personal income: gender-specific patterns and the importance of the household context

The rise in female labor market participation and the growth of “atypical” employment arrangements has, over the last few decades, brought about a steadily decreasing percentage of households in which the man is the sole breadwinner, and a rising percentage of dual-earner households. Against this backdrop, the paper investigates how household contexts in which the traditional “male breadwinner” model still exists or has already been challenged affect individuals’ subjective evaluations of the justice of their personal earnings. In the first step we derive three criteria used by individuals to evaluate the fairness or justice of their personal earnings: compensation for services rendered, coverage of basic needs, and the opportunity to earn social approval. In the second step, we apply considerations from household economics and new approaches from gender research to explain why men’s and women’s evaluations of justice are determined to a considerable degree by the specific situation within their household. The assumptions derived regarding gender-specific patterns in justice attitudes are then tested on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) from 2007 and 2005. The results support our central thesis that gender-specific patterns in the evaluation of personal earnings are both reduced and increased in dual-earner households. They are reduced because women in dual-income households tend to have higher income expectations that challenge the existing gender wage gap. At the same time, gender-specific patterns are increased because men evaluate the equity of their personal income in relation to their ability to fulfill traditional gender norms and thus their capacity to live up to corresponding notions of “masculinity.”

The Relevance of Personal Characteristics in Health Care Rationing: What the Australian Public Thinks and Why

This article examines the preferences of the general public in Australia regarding health care resource allocation. While previous studies have revealed that the public is willing to give priority to particular groups of patients based on their personal characteristics, the present article goes beyond previous efforts in attempting to explain these results. In the present study, there was strong support among respondents for giving “equal priority” to people regardless of their personal characteristics. However, respondents did reveal a preference for married patients over single, for children over adults, for carers of children and the elderly, sole breadwinners, and good community contributors. Further, they would give a lower priority to those perceived as “self-harmers”—smokers, individuals with unhealthy diets, and those who rarely exercise. Variation in the answers according to broad economic and social beliefs across seven different categories (“factors”) influenced the pattern of the public's attitudes towards rationing. The Principal Components Analysis (PCA) indicated that most of the items in our survey are associated with seven factors that explain or capture much of the variation. These relate to a patient's avoidance of self-harm behaviors (Safe Living), their Life Style (diet, exercise, etc.), their contribution to the community through caring for others (Caring), their talents (Gifted), their sexual behavior (Sexuality), their age and marital status (Family), and whether they are an Australian citizen or employed (Citizen). The strength of social preferences—e.g., how strongly respondents would “discriminate” against a recreational drug user or preference a person with a healthy diet—is related to the particular class of preferences.

Prognostic Factors of Long Term Disability Due to Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review

Introduction In the past few decades, mental health problems have increasingly contributed to sickness absence and long-term disability. However, little is known about prognostic factors of return to work (RTW) and disability of persons already on sick leave due to mental health problems. Understanding these factors may help to develop effective prevention and intervention strategies to shorten the duration of disability and facilitate RTW. Method We reviewed systematically current scientific evidence about prognostic factors for mental health related long term disability, RTW and symptom recovery. Searching PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, Cinahl and Business Source Premier, we selected articles with a publication date from January 1990 to March 2009, describing longitudinal cohort studies with a follow-up period of at least 1 year. Participants were persons on sick leave or receiving disability benefit at baseline. We assessed the methodological quality of included studies using an established criteria list. Consistent findings in at least two high quality studies were defined as strong evidence and positive findings in one high quality study were defined as limited evidence. Results Out of 796 studies, we included seven articles, all of high methodological quality describing a range of prognostic factors, according to the ICF-model categorized as health-related, personal and external factors. We found strong evidence that older age (>50 years) is associated with continuing disability and longer time to RTW. There is limited evidence for the association of other personal factors (gender, education, history of previous sickness absence, negative recovery expectation, socio-economic status), health related (stress-related and shoulder/back pain, depression/anxiety disorder) and external i.e., job-related factors (unemployment, quality and continuity of occupational care, supervisor behavior) with disability and RTW. We found limited evidence for the association of personal/external factors (education, sole breadwinner, partial/full RTW, changing work tasks) with symptom recovery. Conclusion This systematic review identifies a number of prognostic factors, some more or less consistent with findings in related literature (mental health factors, age, history of previous sickness absence, negative recovery expectation, socio-economic status, unemployment, quality and continuity of occupational care), while other prognostic factors (gender, level of education, sole breadwinner, supervisor support) conflict with existing evidence. There is still great need for research on modifiable prognostic factors of continuing disability and RTW among benefit claimants with mental health problems. Recommendations are made as to directions and methodological quality of further research, i.e., prognostic cohort studies.

Letter to the Editor: Factors Affecting Men’s Health in Iran

Dear editor, We would like to share my concerns over the health of Iranian men with regard to religious, cultural, and societal conditions of Iranian society, which affect their physical and mental well-being. In Iran, the accepted norm dictates that men are the primary breadwinners of their families; thus, they face extreme pressure from their families to provide sustenance for their wives and children. With this in mind it is dreadful to know that the number of jobs available to men in the Iranian job market has been on the decline, and new job opportunities have been offered to women. While women have become more active in the social arenas, the patriarchal family structure make men the sole breadwinner of their families, so Iranian men are in the stressful situation of financially supporting their families. Studies have shown that the rate of heart disease is high among Iranian men, signifying that many of them suffer from poor health. Moreover, because of the rigorous traditional gender roles governing Iranian society, more hazardous jobs in factories and mills are still performed by men. No matter in what physical conditions a man is, heavy work requiring a great deal of stamina is invariably assigned to men. Women usually take jobs demanding less hazardous physical jobs. Thus, men are prone to many injuries on such jobs. Many male workers are physically injured in Iranian factories on a daily basis. Such workers endanger their mental health as well, since notwithstanding the injury, patriarchal family beliefs governing Iranian society continue to put utmost pressure on them to support their families financially. From a religious point of view, Islam, as the dominant religion in Iran, has several negative effects on men’s health. First, Islam encourages men to have concurrent sexual relationships, which increases their risk of HIV infection. In addition, men are not only free to marry more than one woman, but they are strongly encouraged to do so by religious leaders, which can also increase their vulnerability to one of the most dreadful infections affecting many individuals’ health: HIV/AIDS infection. This is of particular concern, considering the fact that sex education in Iran is still viewed as a taboo topic. Thus, many men are not aware of the protective benefits of using a condom while having concurrent sexual relationships. It is estimated that in the near future, in Iran, the number of HIV-positive men will greatly increase. Finally, because Islam forbids sexual relationships between men, many homosexual men are involved in hidden sexual relationships, which result in increasing the risk of exposure to HIV/AIDS among this population. There are no official figures on the number or health status of homosexual men in Iran, and their health issues are still unknown to the public. As a result of the cultural, societal, and religious structures of Iranian society, the outlook for men’s health in Iran is not promising. The factors affecting men’s health in Iran should also be included in studies investigating men’s health in other geographical locations. Studying the impact of social, cultural, and religious conditions of various countries could potentially shed some light on the factors involved in men’s health based on geographical regions. It is hoped that more comparative studies will be conducted to contrast the social, cultural, and religious factors affecting men’s health in different countries.

The Perceived Justice of Personal Income: Gender-Specific Patterns and the Importance of the Household Context (Die wahrgenommene Gerechtigkeit des eigenen Erwerbseinkommens: Geschlechtstypische Muster und die Bedeutung des Haushaltskontextes)

The rise in female labor market participation and the growth of atypical employment arrangements has, over the last few decades, brought about a steadily decreasing percentage of households in which the man is the sole breadwinner, and a rising percentage of dual-earner households. Against this backdrop, the present paper investigates how household contexts in which the traditional male breadwinner model still exists or has already been challenged affect individuals’ subjective evaluations of the justice of their personal earnings. In the first step we derive three criteria used by individuals to evaluate the fairness or justice of their personal earnings: compensation for services rendered, coverage of basic needs, and the opportunity to earn social approval. In the second step, we apply considerations from household economics and new approaches from gender research to explain why men’s and women’s evaluations of justice are determined to a considerable degree by the specific situation within their household. The assumptions derived regarding gender-specific patterns in justice attitudes are then tested on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) from 2007 and 2005. The results support our central thesis that gender-specific patterns in the evaluation of personal earnings are both reduced and increased in dual-earner households. They are reduced because women in dual-income households tend to have higher income expectations that challenge the existing gender wage gap. At the same time, gender-specific patterns are increased because men evaluate the equity of their personal income in relation to their ability to fulfill traditional gender norms and thus their capacity to live up to corresponding notions of masculinity.

Self-Consumption in Wrongful Death Cases: Decedent or Family Income?

In most states, it is necessary to deduct self-consumption of the deceased when estimating lost earning capacity from wrongful death. The impact whether this deduction is taken only from deceased earnings or from total family income can be substantial. As an example, assume that the now deceased wife earned $30,000 while the surviving husband earned $100,000. For simplicity, assume that self-consumption is 30% of earnings regardless of the level of earnings. Self-consumption based upon the decedent’s income is $9,000 and the loss would be $21,000. However, self-consumption based upon family income is .3(30,000 + 100,000) = $39,000 and the loss would be -$9,000. It would seem that somehow the surviving spouse is better off financially now that their spouse has died. Such incongruous results are some of the issues that have created a split among forensic economists concerning whether consumption should be based upon income of the family or income of just the decedent. In a recent survey (Brookshire, et al., 2006), the following question was asked: “Given no legal constraints, do you deduct consumption from the decedent’s income or family income?” 53.4% indicated they would use the decedent’s income and 46.6% indicated they would use family income. Comments provided showed a wide range of reasons for supporting either side. For example, several stated that using decedent’s income was a matter of fairness, while those using family income cited the fact that published studies measuring self-consumption are based upon family income. A similar question, with the addition of a numerical example for clarity, was asked in the 2009 survey and the numbers changed significantly. 38.7% indicated they would use the decedent’s income while 61.3% would use total family income, a swing of about 15 percentage points. Still, there is no consensus concerning this question among forensic economists. (Brookshire, et al., 2009) There may be little difference between using the decedent’s income versus family income. If, say, the husband died and he was the sole breadwinner, then decedent’s income and family income are identical. Further, there would be only a small difference if the surviving spouse worked part-time or at a relatively low-paying job. On the other hand, if the deceased were the individual with relatively low earnings in the labor market, then the difference would be significant.

The Justice of Earnings in Dual-Earner Households

The rise in female labor market participation and the growth of “atypical” employment arrangements has, over the last few decades, brought about a steadily decreasing percentage of households in which the man is the sole breadwinner, and a rising percentage of dual-earner households. Against this backdrop, the present paper investigates the impact of household contexts in which the traditional male breadwinner model has been called into question on individuals’ subjective evaluations of the equity or inequity of their personal earnings. In the first step, based on social production function theory, we derive three criteria used by individuals to evaluate the fairness or justice of their personal earnings: compensation for services rendered, coverage of basic needs, and the opportunity to earn social approval. In the second step, we apply considerations from household economics and new approaches from gender research to explain why men’s and women’s evaluations of justice are determined to a considerable degree by the specific situation within their household - for example, by the status and income relation between the two partners. The assumptions derived regarding gender-specific patterns in justice attitudes are then tested on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) from the year 2007. We find that, among women, the perceived justice of personal earnings depends much more strongly on the particular household context. At the same time, opportunities for social comparison within the household and the relation between the woman’s personal income and that of her husband play central roles. Men’s justice evaluations, in contrast, are determined to a much greater extent by whether their income allows them to conform to traditional gender norms and concepts of “masculinity,” and by so doing, to gain social approval outside the household as well.

Marring Leishmaniasis: The Stigmatization and the Impact of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Pakistan and Afghanistan

Cutaneous leishmaniasis or “Kal Dana” (“the year-long sore”), as it is known locally, not only leaves a disfiguring scar on your face, but permanently changes your perception of your own self (Figure 1). “This is not me,” said the woman from Chaman, as she explained her encounter with the disease and the stigmatization associated with it. Figure 1 Marring leishmaniasis with lesions on exposed parts of the face. This 28-year-old woman is a resident of Chaman, a town located near the Pakistan–Afghanistan border, in the southwestern province of Balochistan. For decades, Chaman has been a hub for refugees crossing the Durand line; it also is one of the many regions where poverty and lack of health resources show their true victimization of refugees. One such case is that of this woman. She belonged to a poor family; her father, the sole breadwinner of the family, is a cattle rearer. She acquired her first lesion at the age of 12; from thereon she was socially excluded and not allowed to go to the local madrassah (an Islamic religious school). As she grew older, multiple other lesions appeared on her arms and face (the exposed parts of the body). She described this as a period of grief for her, when her parents started isolating her from the rest of the siblings to prevent further spread. No treatment was acquired, due to the afflicting poverty and lack of resources of the region. But the scar had a deeper impact on this woman, as she is still unmarried in a community where early marriages are common. She describes her fate as, “I will probably get married to a limp or mentally disabled in a year or so; at least that is what happened to all the other girls who had these marks.”

Depressed and absent from work: predicting prolonged depressive symptomatology among employees

The World Health Organization considers depression a major health problem and a leading cause of disability. To identify factors which may help to reduce depressive symptoms in a sample of employees sick listed due to mental health problems. Longitudinal cohort study of employees sick listed for 12-20 weeks due to mental health problems. Individuals were followed for 1 year. After a screening questionnaire, we conducted standardized interviews by telephone, assessing individuals' mental health, work characteristics and actions by employers. A total of 555 employees commenced the study and 436 participated in the second interview. Response rates were 42% for the screening questionnaire, 93% for the first interview and 79% for the second interview. Individuals with low education and sole breadwinners showed a less favourable course of depressive symptoms. Work resumption (partial and full) and changing the employee's tasks (action by employer) promoted a more favourable course of depressive symptoms. The findings point to the importance of work resumption and a change in work tasks in order to promote recovery. Using these insights, management of employees suffering from depressive complaints may be improved.

Double Jeopardy

In attempting to analyze the situation of the black woman in America, one crashes abruptly into a solid wall of grave misconceptions, outright distortions of fact and defensive attitudes on the part of many. The System of capitalism (and its afterbirth...racism) under which we all live, has attempted by many devious ways and means to destroy the humanity of all people, and particularly the humanity of black people. This has meant an outrageous assault on every black man, woman, and child who resides in the United States. In keeping with its goal of destroying the black race's will to resist its subjugation, capitalism found it necessary to create a situation where the black man found it impossible to find meaningful or productive employment. More often than not, he couldn't find work of any kind. And the black woman likewise was manipulated by the System, economically exploited and physically assaulted. She could often find work in the white man's kitchen, however, and sometimes became the sole breadwinner of the family. This predicament has led to many psychological problems on the part of both man and woman, and has contributed to the turmoil that we find in the black family structure. Unfortunately, neither the black man nor the black woman understood the true nature of the forces working upon them. Many black women tended