Solar Masses Of Material Research Articles

Spectroscopic identification of r-process nucleosynthesis in a double neutron-star merger.

The merger of two neutron stars is predicted to give rise to three major detectable phenomena: a short burst of γ-rays, a gravitational-wave signal, and a transient optical-near-infrared source powered by the synthesis of large amounts of very heavy elements via rapid neutron capture (the r-process). Such transients, named 'macronovae' or 'kilonovae', are believed to be centres of production of rare elements such as gold and platinum. The most compelling evidence so far for a kilonova was a very faint near-infrared rebrightening in the afterglow of a short γ-ray burst at redshift z = 0.356, although findings indicating bluer events have been reported. Here we report the spectral identification and describe the physical properties of a bright kilonova associated with the gravitational-wave source GW170817 and γ-ray burst GRB 170817A associated with a galaxy at a distance of 40 megaparsecs from Earth. Using a series of spectra from ground-based observatories covering the wavelength range from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared, we find that the kilonova is characterized by rapidly expanding ejecta with spectral features similar to those predicted by current models. The ejecta is optically thick early on, with a velocity of about 0.2 times light speed, and reaches a radius of about 50 astronomical units in only 1.5 days. As the ejecta expands, broad absorption-like lines appear on the spectral continuum, indicating atomic species produced by nucleosynthesis that occurs in the post-merger fast-moving dynamical ejecta and in two slower (0.05 times light speed) wind regions. Comparison with spectral models suggests that the merger ejected 0.03 to 0.05 solar masses of material, including high-opacity lanthanides.

How much mass and angular momentum can the progenitors of carbon-enriched stars accrete?

The chemically peculiar barium stars, CH stars, and most CEMP stars are all believed to be the products of mass transfer in binary systems from a now extinct AGB primary star. The mass of the AGB star and the orbital parameters of the system are the key factors usually considered when determining how much mass is transferred onto the lower-mass main-sequence companion. What is usually neglected, however, is the angular momentum of the accreted material, which should spin up the accreting star. If the star reaches critical rotation, further accretion should cease until the excess angular momentum is somehow dealt with. If the star cannot redistribute or lose the angular momentum while the primary is on the AGB, the amount of mass accreted could be much lower than otherwise expected. Here we present calculations, based on detailed stellar evolution models, of the mass that can be accreted by putative progenitors of Ba and CEMP stars before they reach critical rotation under the assumption that no angular momentum loss occurs during the mass transfer. We consider different accretion rates and values of specific angular momentum. The most stringent limits on the accreted masses result from considering accretion from a Keplerian accretion disk, which is likely present during the formation of most extrinsically-polluted carbon-enriched stars. Our calculations indicate that in this scenario only about 0.05 solar masses of material can be added to the accreting star before it reaches critical rotation, which is much too low to explain the chemical enrichment of many Ba and CEMP stars. Either the specific angular momentum of the accreted material has to effectively be lower by about a factor of ten than the Keplerian value, or significant angular momentum losses must occur for substantial accretion to take place.

Binary orbits as the driver of γ-ray emission and mass ejection in classical novae.

Classical novae are the most common astrophysical thermonuclear explosions, occurring on the surfaces of white dwarf stars accreting gas from companions in binary star systems. Novae typically expel about 10(-4) solar masses of material at velocities exceeding 1,000kilometres per second. However, the mechanism of mass ejection in novae is poorly understood, and could be dominated by the impulsive flash of thermonuclear energy, prolonged optically thick winds or binary interaction with the nova envelope. Classical novae are now routinely detected at gigaelectronvolt γ-ray wavelengths, suggesting that relativistic particles are accelerated by strong shocks in the ejecta. Here we report high-resolution radio imaging of the γ-ray-emitting nova V959Mon. We find that its ejecta were shaped by the motion of the binary system: some gas was expelled rapidly along the poles as a wind from the white dwarf, while denser material drifted out along the equatorial plane, propelled by orbital motion. At the interface between the equatorial and polar regions, we observe synchrotron emission indicative of shocks and relativistic particle acceleration, thereby pinpointing the location of γ-ray production. Binary shaping of the nova ejecta and associated internal shocks are expected to be widespread among novae, explaining why many novae are γ-ray emitters.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL SIMULATIONS OF PULSATIONAL PAIR-INSTABILITY SUPERNOVAE

Massive stars that end their lives with helium cores in the range of 35 to 65 Msun are known to produce repeated thermonuclear outbursts due to a recurring pair-instability. In some of these events, solar masses of material are ejected in repeated outbursts of several times 10$^{50}$ erg each. Collisions between these shells can sometimes produce very luminous transients that are visible from the edge of the observable universe. Previous 1D studies of these events produce thin, high-density shells as one ejection plows into another. Here, in the first multidimensional simulations of these collisions, we show that the development of a Rayleigh-Taylor instability truncates the growth of the high density spike and drives mixing between the shells. The progenitor is a 110 Msun solar-metallicity star that was shown in earlier work to produce a superluminous supernova. The light curve of this more realistic model has a peak luminosity and duration that are similar to those of 1D models but a structure that is smoother.

SETTING THE STAGE FOR CIRCUMSTELLAR INTERACTION IN CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVAE. II. WAVE-DRIVEN MASS LOSS IN SUPERNOVA PROGENITORS

Supernovae (SNe) powered by interaction with circumstellar material provide evidence for intense stellar mass loss during the final years leading up to core collapse. We have argued that during and after core neon burning, internal gravity waves excited by core convection can tap into the core fusion power and transport a super-Eddington energy flux out to the stellar envelope, potentially unbinding up to ~ 1 solar mass of material. In this work, we explore the internal conditions of SN progenitors using the MESA 1-D stellar evolution code, in search of those most susceptible to wave-driven mass loss. We focus on simple, order of magnitude considerations applicable to a wide range of progenitors. Wave-driven mass loss during core neon and oxygen fusion happens preferentially in either lower mass (<~ 20 solar mass ZAMS) stars or massive, sub-solar metallicity stars. Roughly 20 per cent of the SN progenitors we survey can excite ~ 10^46 - 10^48 erg of energy in waves that can potentially drive mass loss within a few months to a decade of core collapse. This energy can generate a circumstellar environment with 10^-3 - 1 solar mass reaching ~ 100 AU before explosion. We predict a correlation between the energy associated with pre-SN mass ejection and the time to core collapse, with the most intense mass loss preferentially happening closer to core collapse. During silicon burning, a ~ 5 day long phase for our progenitor models, wave energy may inflate ~ 10^-3 - 1 solar mass of the stellar envelope to ~ 10 - 100s of solar radii. This suggests that some nominally compact SN progenitors (Type Ibc progenitors) will have a significantly different SN shock breakout signature than traditionally assumed. We discuss the implications of our results for the core-collapse SN mechanism, Type IIn SNe, Type IIb SNe from extended progenitors (e.g., SNe 1993j and 2011dh), and observed pre-SN outbursts.

Modelling the nucleosynthetic properties of carbon-enhanced metal-poor RR Lyrae stars

Certain carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars likely obtained their composition via pollution from some of the earliest generations of asymptotic giant branch stars and as such provide important clues to early Universe nucleosynthesis. Recently, Kinman et al. discovered that the highly carbon- and barium-enriched metal-poor star SDSS J1707+58 is in fact an RR Lyrae pulsator. This gives us an object in a definite evolutionary state where the effects of dilution of material during the Main Sequence are minimised owing to the object having passed through first dredge-up. We perform detailed stellar modelling of putative progenitor systems in which we accreted material from asymptotic giant branch stars in the mass range 1-2 solar masses. We investigate how the surface abundances are affected by the inclusion of mechanisms like thermohaline mixing and gravitational settling. While we are able to find a reasonable fit to the carbon and sodium abundances of SDSS J1707+58, suggesting accretion of around 0.1 solar masses from a 2 solar mass companion, the strontium and barium abundances remain problematic and this object may have experienced something other than a standard $s$ process. We have more success in fitting the abundances of the mildly carbon-enriched, metal-poor RR Lyrae pulsator TY Gru (CS 22881-071), which we suggest received 0.1 solar masses of material from a companion of around 1 solar mass.

A ∼0.2-solar-mass protostar with a Keplerian disk in the very young L1527 IRS system

In their earliest stages, protostars accrete mass from their surrounding envelopes through circumstellar disks. Until now, the smallest observed protostar-to-envelope mass ratio was about 2.1 (ref. 1). The protostar L1527 IRS is thought to be in the earliest stages of star formation. Its envelope contains about one solar mass of material within a radius of about 0.05 parsecs (refs 3, 4), and earlier observations suggested the presence of an edge-on disk. Here we report observations of dust continuum emission and (13)CO (rotational quantum number J = 2 → 1) line emission from the disk around L1527 IRS, from which we determine a protostellar mass of 0.19 ± 0.04 solar masses and a protostar-to-envelope mass ratio of about 0.2. We conclude that most of the luminosity is generated through the accretion process, with an accretion rate of about 6.6 × 10(-7) solar masses per year. If it has been accreting at that rate through much of its life, its age is approximately 300,000 years, although theory suggests larger accretion rates earlier, so it may be younger. The presence of a rotationally supported disk is confirmed, and significantly more mass may be added to its planet-forming region as well as to the protostar itself in the future.

MAPPING THE ASYMMETRIC THICK DISK. II. DISTANCE, SIZE, AND MASS OF THE HERCULES THICK DISK CLOUD

The Hercules Thick Disk Cloud (Larsen et al. 2008) was initially discovered as an excess in the number of faint blue stars between quadrants 1 and 4 of the Galaxy. The origin of the Cloud could be an interaction with the disk bar, a triaxial thick disk or a merger remnant or stream. To better map the spatial extent of the Cloud along the line of sight, we have obtained multi-color UBVR photometry for 1.2 million stars in 63 fields approximately 1 square degree each. Our analysis of the fields beyond the apparent boundaries of the excess have already ruled out a triaxial thick disk as a likely explanation (Larsen, Humphreys and Cabanela 2010) In this paper we present our results for the star counts over all of our fields, determine the spatial extent of the over density across and along the line of sight, and estimate the size and mass of the Cloud. Using photometric parallaxes, the stars responsible for the excess are between 1 and 6 kiloparsecs from the Sun, 0.5 -- 4 kpc above the Galactic plane, and extends approximately 3-4 kiloparsecs across our line of sight. It is thus a major substructure in the Galaxy. The distribution of the excess along our sight lines corresponds with the density contours of the bar in the Disk, and its most distant stars are directly over the bar. We also see through the Cloud to its far side. Over the entire 500 square degrees of sky containing the Cloud, we estimate more than 5.6 million stars and 1.9 million solar masses of material. If the over density is associated with the bar, it would exceed 1.4 billion stars and more than than 50 million solar masses. Finally, we argue that the Hercules-Aquila Cloud (Belokurov et al. 2007) is actually the Hercules Thick Disk Cloud.

SN 1999ga: a low-luminosity linear type II supernova?

Type II-linear supernovae are thought to arise from progenitors that have lost most of their H envelope by the time of the explosion, and they are poorly understood because they are only occasionally discovered. It is possible that they are intrinsically rare, but selection effects due to their rapid luminosity evolution may also play an important role in limiting the number of detections. In this context, the discovery of a subluminous type II-linear event is even more interesting. We investigate the physical properties and characterise the explosion site of the type II SN 1999ga, which exploded in the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 2442. Spectroscopic and photometric observations of SN 1999ga allow us to constrain the energetics of the explosion and to estimate the mass of the ejected material, shedding light on the nature of the progenitor star in the final stages of its life. The study of the environment in the vicinity of the explosion site provides information on a possible relation between these unusual supernovae and the properties of the galaxies hosting them. Despite the lack of early-time observations, we provide reasonable evidence that SN 1999ga was probably a type II-linear supernova that ejected a few solar masses of material, with a very small amount of radioactive elements of the order of 0.01 solar masses.

Pulsational pair instability as an explanation for the most luminous supernovae

The extremely luminous supernova SN 2006gy (ref. 1) challenges the traditional view that the collapse of a stellar core is the only mechanism by which a massive star makes a supernova, because it seems too luminous by more than a factor of ten. Here we report that the brightest supernovae in the modern Universe arise from collisions between shells of matter ejected by massive stars that undergo an interior instability arising from the production of electron-positron pairs. This 'pair instability' leads to explosive burning that is insufficient to unbind the star, but ejects many solar masses of the envelope. After the first explosion, the remaining core contracts and searches for a stable burning state. When the next explosion occurs, several solar masses of material are again ejected, which collide with the earlier ejecta. This collision can radiate 10(50) erg of light, about a factor of ten more than an ordinary supernova. Our model is in good agreement with the observed light curve for SN 2006gy and also shows that some massive stars can produce more than one supernova-like outburst.

Star formation in the vicinity of the IC 348 cluster

Aims. We present molecular line observations of the southwestern part of the IC 348 young cluster, and we use them together with NIR and mm continuum data to determine the distribution of dense gas, search for molecular outflows, and analyze the ongoing star formation activity in the region. Methods. Our molecular line data consists of C 18 O(1–0) and N 2 H + (1–0) maps obtained with the FCRAO telescope at a resolution of about $50''$ and CO(2–1) data obtained with the IRAM 30 m telescope at a resolution of $11''$. Results. The dense gas southwest of IC 348 is concentrated in two groups of dense cores, each of them with a few solar masses of material and indications of CO depletion at high density. One of the core groups is actively forming stars, while the other seems starless. There is evidence for at least three bipolar molecular outflows in the region, two of them powered by previously identified Class 0 sources while the other is powered by a still not well characterized low-luminosity object. The ongoing star formation activity is producing a small stellar subgroup in the cluster. Using the observed core characteristics and the star formation rate in the cluster, we propose that similar episodes of stellar birth may have produced the subclustering seen in the halo of IC 348.

X-ray detection of Nova Herculis 1991 five days after optical outburst

CLASSICAL nova outbursts are thought to occur in binary systems in which a white dwarf accretes material from a main-sequence dwarf. The outburst is due to thermonuclear runaway in the accreted material, and results in the ejection of about 10−5–10−4 solar masses of material at velocities of up to several thousand kilometres per second (ref. 1). Previous X-ray observations of classical novae in the early stages of outburst have resulted only in upper limits to the X-ray flux2–4. Here we report a positive detection by the Rosat satellite of X-ray emission from Nova Herculis 1991 five days after its optical discovery. Standard nova models predict X-ray emission to arise directly from nuclear burning on the surface of the white dwarf, and suggest that X-rays should not be seen until later in the outburst5. We argue that the emission from Nova Her 1991 comes from hot, shocked circuin-stellar material, which may be the ejected material itself or preexisting circumstellar matter. In either case, however, the required density of material is higher than models of nova binary systems would suggest.

Common envelope formation and the merging of degenerate dwarf binaries

When, as a consequence of gravitational wave radiation, the lighter of two massive orbiting white dwarfs fills its Roche lobe for the first time, a mass transfer rate typically in excess of 0.0001 solar mass/yr is expected. It is shown here explicitly that the response of the accreting white dwarf is to swell beyond its own Roche lobe. A common envelope must therefore form. It is estimated that true contact between the degenerate cores will be established after less than 0.05 solar mass of material is lost from the system. Evolution to contact is estimated to occur in a time which is long compared with the orbital period when Roche lobe contact is first established but short compared with both the initial mass transfer time scale and the time for a possible carbon burning front ignited near the surface to reach the center. After surface contact is established, a true dynamical coalescence occurs and, if the mass of the merged object exceeds the Chandrasekhar mass for a cold nonrotating white dwarf, carbon may ignite sufficiently deep in the interior for a star-disrupting explosion of supernova proportions to result. 52 references.

Star Formation in W49A: Gravitational Collapse of the Molecular Cloud Core Toward a Ring of Massive Stars

High-resolution molecular line and continuum radio images from the Hat Creek Radio Observatory and the Very Large Array suggest that the core of the W49A star-forming region is undergoing gravitational collapse. The radio continuum shows a 2-parsec ring of at least ten distinct ultracompact H-II regions, each associated with at least one O star. The ring is a region of large-scale, organized massive star formation. Recombination line velocities and HCO(+) excitation requirements indicate that the ring is rotating around 50,000 solar masses of material. Because the HCO(+) (1-0) line shows red-shifted absorption but blue-shifted emission, the molecular cloud core is believed to be collapsing toward the center of the ring. The HCO(+) radial velocities, as well as H-I, H(2)CO, and magnetic-field measurements, fit a simple model of inside-out gravitational collapse of a once magnetically supported cloud.

Accretion of rotating fluids by barytropes - Numerical results for white-dwarf models

Numerical sequences of rotating axisymmetric nonmagnetic equilibrium models are constructed which represent the evolution of a barytropic star as it accretes material from a rotating medium. Two accretion geometries are considered - one approximating accretion from a rotating cloud and the other, accretion from a Keplerian disk. It is assumed that some process, such as Ekman spin-up or nonequilibrium oscillations, maintains nearly constant angular velocity along cylinders about the rotation axis. Transport of angular momentum in the cylindrically radial direction by viscosity is included. Fluid instabilities and other physical processes leading to enhancement of this transport are discussed. Particular application is made to zero-temperature white-dwarf models, using the degenerate electron equation of state. An initially nonrotating 0.566-solar-mass white dwarf is followed during the accretion of more than one solar mass of material. Applications to degenerate stellar cores, to mass-transfer binary systems containing white dwarfs, such as novae and dwarf novae, to Type I supernovae, and to galactic X-ray sources are considered.