Solar Energetic Particle Events Research Articles

A Data-driven, Physics-based Transport Model of Solar Energetic Particles Accelerated by Coronal Mass Ejection Shocks Propagating through the Solar Coronal and Heliospheric Magnetic Fields

In an effort to develop computational tools for predicting radiation hazards from solar energetic particles (SEPs), we have created a data-driven physics-based particle transport model to calculate the injection, acceleration, and propagation of SEPs from coronal mass ejection (CME) shocks traversing through the solar corona and interplanetary magnetic fields. The model runs on an input of corona and heliospheric plasma and magnetic field configuration from a magnetohydrodynamic model driven by solar photospheric magnetic field measurements superposed with observed CME shocks determined from coronagraph images. SEP source particles are injected at the shock using the result of diffusive shock acceleration formulation from a characteristic obliquity-dependent injection from a heated solar wind thermal tail population. With several advanced computation techniques involving stochastic simulation and integration, the model obtains the particle intensity at any location in interplanetary space through the rigorous solution to the time-dependent 5D focus transport equation in the phase space that includes perpendicular diffusion. We apply the model to the 2011 November 3 CME event. The calculation results reproduce multispacecraft SEP observations at Earth and STEREO-B reasonably well without normalization of particle flux. The observations at STEREO-A can be reproduced by rescaling particle energy or modified energy dependence of particle diffusion coefficients. This circumsolar SEP event seen by spacecraft at Earth, STEREO-A, and STEREO-B at widely separated longitudes can be explained by diffusive shock acceleration by a single CME shock with a moderate speed.

What Is the Radiation Impact of Extreme Solar Energetic Particle Events on Mars?

AbstractSolar Energetic Particles (SEP) are one of the major sources of the Martian radiation environment. It is important to understand the SEP‐induced Martian radiation environment for future human habitats on Mars. Due to the lack of a global intrinsic magnetic field, Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) can directly propagate through and interact with its atmosphere before reaching the surface and subsurface of Mars. Mars has many high mountains and low‐altitude craters where the atmospheric thickness can be more than 10 times different than one another. The SEP‐induced surface radiation level may therefore be very different from one location to another. We thus consider the influence of the atmospheric depths on the Martian radiation levels including the absorbed dose, dose equivalent, and (human‐)body effective dose induced by SEPs at varying heights above and below the Martian surface. The state‐of‐the‐art Atmospheric Radiation Interaction Simulator based on GEometry And Tracking Monte‐Carlo method has been employed for simulating particle interactions with the Martian atmosphere and terrain. We find that even the thinnest Martian atmosphere reduces radiation dose from that in deep space by at least 65%, and the shielding effect increases for denser atmosphere. Furthermore, we present a method to quickly forecast the SEP‐induced radiation in different regions of Mars with different surface pressures.

Proton Flux Variations During Solar Energetic Particle Events, Minimum and Maximum Solar Activity, and Splitting of the Proton Belt in the South Atlantic Anomaly

AbstractThe analysis of the proton flux variations observed by the Energetic Particle Telescope (EPT) at energies >9.5 MeV from the launch of PROBA‐V satellite on 7 May 2013 up to October 2022 shows an anti‐correlation between the proton fluxes and the solar phase. At solar minimum, the fluxes are higher at low L corresponding to the northern border of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). This solar cycle modulation of the inner belt is mainly due to losses by increased atmospheric interactions during solar maximum. Strong Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) events, like in January 2014, June 2015, and September 2017, inject energetic protons at high latitudes, but not in the inner belt where protons are trapped at long term at low L. Nevertheless, big geomagnetic storms, including those following SEP a few days after, can cause losses of protons at the outer border of the proton belt, due to magnetic field perturbations. A double peak in the proton belt is observed during long period of measurements only for the EPT channel of 9.5–13 MeV. The narrow gap between the two peaks in the inner belt is located around L = 2. This resembles to a splitting of the proton belt, separating the SAA into two different parts, North and South. The high‐resolution measurements of PROBA‐V/EPT allow the observation of small‐scale structures that brings new elements to the understanding of the different source and loss mechanisms acting on the proton radiation belt at LEO.

Unexpected energetic particle observations near the Sun by Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter

Solar energetic particles (SEPs) from suprathermal (few keV) up to relativistic (∼few GeV) energies are accelerated at the Sun in association with solar flares and coronal mass ejection-driven shock waves. Although our knowledge of the origin, acceleration, and transport of these particles from close to the Sun through the interplanetary medium has advanced dramatically in the last 40 years, many puzzles have still remained unsolved due to the scarcity of in situ measurements well inside 1 AU. Furthermore, energetic particle intensity enhancements associated with high-speed streams or stream interaction regions (SIRs) have been routinely observed at interplanetary spacecraft near Earth orbit since the 1960s. Since only a small sample of SIR events were observed by the Helios spacecraft inside 1 AU, additional observations well inside 1 AU were also needed to further investigate the energization and transport effects of SIR-associated ions and to compare with expectations from contemporary SIR-associated particle acceleration and transport models and theories. The Solar Orbiter (SolO) and Parker Solar Probe (PSP) pioneering missions have been providing unprecedented measurements of energetic particles in the near-Sun environment. This review presents the unexpected observations of SEP and SIR-related ion events as measured by the PSP/IS⊙IS and SolO/EPD experiments, which revealed surprises that challenge our understanding.

Solar energetic particle event onsets at different heliolongitudes: The effect of turbulence in Parker spiral geometry

Context. Solar energetic particles (SEPs), accelerated during solar eruptions, are observed to rapidly reach a wide heliolongitudinal range in the interplanetary space. Turbulence-associated SEP propagation across the mean Parker spiral direction has been suggested to contribute to this phenomenon. Aims. We study SEP propagation in turbulent magnetic fields to evaluate SEP spatial distribution in the heliosphere, their path lengths, and the overall evolution of SEP intensities at 1 au. Methods. We use full-orbit test particle simulations of 100-MeV protons in a novel analytic model of the turbulent heliospheric magnetic field, where the turbulence is dominated by modes that are transverse and 2D with respect to the Parker spiral direction. Results. We find that by propagating along meandering field lines, SEPs reach a 60°-wide heliolongitudinal range at 1 au within an hour of their injection for the turbulence parameters considered. The SEP onset times are asymmetric with respect to the location connected to the source along the Parker spiral, with the earliest arrival times being 15° westwards from the well-connected Parker spiral longitude. The inferred path length of the first arriving particles is 1.5−1.8 au within 30° of the well-connected longitude; 20−30% longer than the length of the random-walking field lines, increasing monotonously at longitudes further away; and 30−50% longer than the Parker spiral. The global maximum intensity is reached 15° west from the well-connected longitude an hour after the SEP injection. Subsequently, the SEP distribution broadens, consistent with diffusive spreading of SEPs across the field lines. Conclusions. Our results indicate that magnetic field line meandering can explain rapid access of SEPs to wide longitudinal ranges, as well as several other features of SEP event intensity evolution.

Formation of Amino Acids and Carboxylic Acids in Weakly Reducing Planetary Atmospheres by Solar Energetic Particles from the Young Sun.

Life most likely started during the Hadean Eon; however, the environmental conditions which contributed to the complexity of its chemistry are poorly known. A better understanding of various environmental conditions, including global (heliospheric) and local (atmospheric, surface, and oceanic), along with the internal dynamic conditions of the early Earth, are required to understand the onset of abiogenesis. Herein, we examine the contributions of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and solar energetic particles (SEPs) associated with superflares from the young Sun to the formation of amino acids and carboxylic acids in weakly reduced gas mixtures representing the early Earth's atmosphere. We also compare the products with those introduced by lightning events and solar ultraviolet light (UV). In a series of laboratory experiments, we detected and characterized the formation of amino acids and carboxylic acids via proton irradiation of a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen, and water in various mixing ratios. These experiments show the detection of amino acids after acid hydrolysis when 0.5% (v/v) of initial methane was introduced to the gas mixture. In the set of experiments with spark discharges (simulation of lightning flashes) performed for the same gas mixture, we found that at least 15% methane was required to detect the formation of amino acids, and no amino acids were detected in experiments via UV irradiation, even when 50% methane was used. Carboxylic acids were formed in non-reducing gas mixtures (0% methane) by proton irradiation and spark discharges. Hence, we suggest that GCRs and SEP events from the young Sun represent the most effective energy sources for the prebiotic formation of biologically important organic compounds from weakly reducing atmospheres. Since the energy flux of space weather, which generated frequent SEPs from the young Sun in the first 600 million years after the birth of the solar system, was expected to be much greater than that of GCRs, we conclude that SEP-driven energetic protons are the most promising energy sources for the prebiotic production of bioorganic compounds in the atmosphere of the Hadean Earth.

Chemical composition of solar energetic particle events and their association with ground level enhancement

Solar energetic particle (SEP) events originate from solar flares and coronal mass ejections. Ground level enhancement (GLE) is a sudden increase in the count rate of a ground neutron monitor. When GLE occurs, the associated SEP event shows a large peak intensity and fluence in the proton intensity of the high energy channels in the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES). This study examined the chemical composition ratio at the moment of SEP events to determine what is occurring at the SEP event origin site on the solar surface. This study used the data of the Solar Isotope Spectrometer (SIS) onboard the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) satellite for SEP events, which was confirmed by proton intensity data from the GOES satellite. The chemical compositions during the SEP events with and without GLE related to the solar flares in M5 class were compared. In addition, the solar wind composition in a normal quiet time and the solar photosphere abundance observed by spectroscopy were compared with the selected SEP events. As expected, all elements except helium showed less than a hundredfold increase in intensity at the SEP event periods than on quiet-day events. The helium intensity surged more than a thousandfold increase for SEP events with and without GLE. The abundance of the heavy elements at the periods of the SEP event accompanied by GLE was greater than that of the solar photosphere. Although it is generally believed that the erupted emission of electromagnetic radiation, including gamma and x-rays, called a flare, escapes from the deep undersurface core, the relatively higher abundance of helium compared to other elements at the moment of the flare blowing out the SEP events suggests that nuclear fusion by the magnetic confinement is occurring near the solar surface.

Observation of the radiation environment and solar energetic particle events in Mars orbit in May 2018- June 2022

The dosimeter Liulin-MO for measuring the radiation environment onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) is a module of the Fine Resolution Epithermal Neutron Detector (FREND). Here we present results from measurements of the charged particle fluxes, dose rates and estimation of dose equivalent rates at ExoMars TGO Mars science orbit, provided by Liulin-MO from May 2018 to June 2022. The period of measurements covers the declining and minimum phases of the solar activity in 24th solar cycle and the rising phase of the 25th cycle. Compared are the radiation values of the galactic cosmic rays (GCR) obtained during the different phases of the solar activity. The highest values of the dose rate and flux from GCR are registered from March to August 2020. At the minimum of 24th and transition to 25th solar cycle the dose rate from GCR is 15.9 ± 1.6 µGy h−1, particle flux is 3.3 ± 0.17 cm−2s−1, dose equivalent rate is 72.3 ± 14.4 µSv h−1. Since September 2020 the dose rate and flux of GCR decrease. Particular attention is drawn to the observation of the solar energetic particle (SEP) events in July, September and October 2021, February and March 2022 as well as their effects on the radiation environment on TGO during the corresponding periods. The SEP event during15–19 February 2022 is the most powerful event observed in our data. The SEP dose during this event is 13.8 ± 1.4 mGy (in Si), the SEP dose equivalent is 21.9 ± 4.4 mSv. SEP events recorded in Mars orbit are related to coronal mass ejections (CME) observed by SOHO and STEREO A coronagraphs. Compared are the time profiles of the count rates measured by Liulin-MO, the neutron detectors of FREND and neutron detectors of the High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) aboard Mars Odyssey during 15–19 February 2022 event. The data obtained is important for the knowledge of the radiation environment around Mars, regarding future manned and robotic flights to the planet. The data for SEP events in Mars orbit during July 2021-March 2022 contribute to the details on the solar activity at a time when Mars is on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth.

Study of Solar Energetic Particle Events with Ulysses, ACE Observations and Numerical Simulations

We study the latitudinal extent of the near-relativistic electron events of 10 June 2000 and 26 December 2001, observed by both Ulysses and ACE. From the observations it is shown that the intensity of ACE was quite different from that of Ulysses. Through the numerical simulations, we obtain the SEPs time-intensity profiles, which generally fit well to the observations. To compare the observations we obtained the best fit parameters for the simulations. We suggest that the transport effects, especially the perpendicular diffusion effect, can cause the difference between the intensity profiles of ACE and Ulysses, which is dominated by particle transport at a large radial distance and high-latitude when a spacecraft has poor magnetic connection to the particle source. Furthermore, we present the particle source from the best fit parameters to show that the start and peak times of the particle sources are between the onset and max times of a flare in all the energy channels. Moreover, we propose models for the peak intensity and half width of the particle source, and the time interval from the flare onset to the particle source peak time. We show that the models generally agree with the best fit parameters.

Modeling of the Magnetic Turbulence Level and Source Function of Particle Injection from Multiple SEP Events

Solar energetic particles (SEPs) are produced by solar eruptions and are harmful to spacecraft and astronauts. The four source function parameters of particle injection for SEP events and the magnetic turbulence level can be collectively referred to as key parameters. We reproduce the electron intensity-time profiles with simulations for five SEP events observed by multispacecraft such as ACE, STEREO-A, and STEREO-B, so we can obtain the five fitted key parameters for each of the events. We analyze the relationship among the five fitted key parameters, and also the relationship between these parameters and the observed event features. Thus, the model of key parameters are established. Next, we simulate another 12 SEP events with the key parameters model. Though the predicted electron intensity-time profiles do not fit the observed ones well, the peak flux and event-integrated fluence can be predicted accurately. Therefore, the model can be used to estimate the radiation hazards.

Charging of free-falling test masses in orbit due to cosmic rays: Results from LISA Pathfinder

A comprehensive summary of the measurements made to characterize test mass charging due to the space environment during the LISA Pathfinder mission is presented. Measurements of the residual charge of the test mass after release by the grabbing and positioning mechanism, show that the initial charge of the test masses was negative after all releases, leaving the test mass with a potential in the range $-12$ mV to $-512$ mV. Variations in the neutral test mass charging rate between $21.7$ e s$^{-1}$ and $30.7$ e s$^{-1}$ were observed over the course of the 17-month science operations produced by cosmic ray flux changes including a Forbush decrease associated with a small solar energetic particle event. A dependence of the cosmic ray charging rate on the test mass potential between $-30.2$ e s$^{-1}$ V$^{-1}$ and $-40.3$ e s$^{-1}$ V$^{-1}$ was observed and this is attributed to a contribution to charging from low-energy electrons emitted from the gold surfaces of the gravitational reference sensor. Data from the on-board particle detector show a reliable correlation with the charging rate and with other environmental monitors of the cosmic ray flux. This correlation is exploited to extrapolate test mass charging rates to a 20-year period giving useful insight into the expected range of charging rate that may be observed in the LISA mission.

Solar activities associated with 3He-rich solar energetic particle events observed by Solar Orbiter

A series of 3He-rich solar energetic particle (SEP) events was observed by Solar Orbiter in May 2021 at a radial distance of 0.95 AU. An isolated active region AR 12824 was likely the ultimate source of these SEP events. The period of the enhanced flux of 3He was also a period of frequent type III bursts in the decametric-hectometric range, confirming their close relationship. As in past studies, we try to find the solar activities possibly responsible for 3He-rich SEP events, using the type III bursts close to the particle injection times estimated from the velocity dispersion. But this exercise is not as straightforward as in many of the past studies since the region produced many more type III bursts and jet-like eruptions than the SEP injections. We may generalize the solar activities for the 3He-rich SEP events in question as coronal jets, but their appearances do not necessarily conform to classic jets that consist of a footpoint and a spire. Conversely, such jets often did not accompany type III bursts. The areas that produced jet-like eruptions changed within the active region from the first to the second set of 3He-rich SEP events, which may be related to the extended coronal mass ejection that launched stealthily.

Improved space weather observations and modeling for aviation radiation

In recent years there has been a growing interest from the aviation community for space weather radiation forecasts tailored to the needs of the aviation industry. In 2019 several space weather centers began issuing advisories for the International Civil Aviation Organization alerting users to enhancements in the radiation environment at aviation flight levels. Due to a lack of routine observations, radiation modeling is required to specify the dose rates experienced by flight crew and passengers. While mature models exist, support for key observational inputs and further modeling advancements are needed. Observational inputs required from the ground-based neutron monitor network must be financially supported for research studies and operations to ensure real-time data is available for forecast operations and actionable end user decision making. An improved understanding of the geomagnetic field is required to reduce dose rate uncertainties in regions close to the open/closed geomagnetic field boundary, important for flights such as those between the continental US and Europe which operate in this region. Airborne radiation measurements, which are crucial for model validation and improvement, are lacking, particularly during solar energetic particle events. New measurement campaigns must be carried out to ensure progress and in situ atmospheric radiation measurements made available for real-time situational awareness. Furthermore, solar energetic particle forecasting must be improved to move aviation radiation nowcasts to forecasts in order to meet customer requirements for longer lead times for planning and mitigation.

Revisiting empirical solar energetic particle scaling relations

Aims. The possible influence of solar superflares on the near-Earth space radiation environment are assessed through the investigation of scaling laws between the peak proton flux and fluence of solar energetic particle (SEP) events with the solar flare soft X-ray peak photon flux. Methods. We compiled a catalog of 65 well-connected (W20-90) SEP events during the last three solar cycles covering a period of ∼34 yr (1984–2020) that were associated with flares of class ≥C6.0, and investigated the statistical relations between the recorded peak proton fluxes (IP) and the fluences (FP) at a set of integral energies from E > 10, > 30, and > 60 to > 100 MeV versus the associated solar flare peak soft X-ray flux in the 1–8 Å band (FSXR). Based on the inferred relations, we calculated the integrated energy dependence of the peak proton flux (IP) and fluence (FP) of the SEP events, assuming that they follow an inverse power law with respect to energy. Finally, we made use of simple physical assumptions, combining our derived scaling laws, and estimated the upper limits for IP and FP focusing on the flare associated with the strongest ground level enhancement (GLE) directly observed to date (GLE 05 on 23 February 1956), and that inferred for the cosmogenic radionuclide-based SEP event of AD774/775. Results. A scaling law relating IP and FP to the solar soft X-ray peak intensity (FSXR) as ∝ $ {F}_{\mathrm{SXR}}^{5/6} $ for a flare with a FSXR = X600 (in the revised scale) is consistent with values of FP inferred for the cosmogenic nuclide event of AD774/775.

Solar Energetic Particle Events with Short and Long Onset Times

Gradual solar energetic particle (SEP) events, usually attributed to shock waves driven by coronal mass ejections (CMEs), show a wide variety of temporal behaviors. For example, TO, the >10 MeV proton onset time with respect to the launch of the CME, has a distribution of at least an order of magnitude, even when the source region is not far from the so-called well-connected longitudes. It is important to understand what controls TO, especially in the context of space weather prediction. Here we study two SEP events from the western hemisphere that are different in TO on the basis of >10 MeV proton data from the Geostationary Operations Environmental Satellite, despite being similar in the CME speed and longitude of the source regions. We try to find the reasons for different TO, or proton release times, in how the CME-driven shock develops and the Alfvén Mach number of the shock wave reaches some threshold by combining the CME height-time profiles with radio dynamic spectra. We also discuss how CME–CME interactions and active region properties may affect the proton release times.

High Energy Solar Particle Events and Their Relationship to Associated Flare, CME and GLE Parameters

AbstractLarge solar eruptive events, including solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), can lead to solar energetic particle (SEP) events. During these events, protons are accelerated up to several GeV and pose numerous space weather risks. These risks include, but are not limited to, radiation hazards to astronauts and disruption to satellites and electronics. The highest energy SEPs are capable of reaching Earth on timescales of minutes and can be detected in ground level enhancements (GLEs). Understanding and analyzing these events is critical to future forecasting models. However, the availability of high energy SEP data sets is limited, especially that which covers multiple solar cycles. The majority of analysis of SEP events considers data at energies <100 MeV. In this work, we use a newly calibrated data set using data from Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite‐high energy proton and alpha detector between 1984 and 2017. Analysis of the SEP events in this time period over three high energy channels is performed, and SEP properties are compared to flare and CME parameters. In addition, neutron monitor (NM) observations are examined for the relevant GLE events. We find that correlations between SEP peak intensity and the CME speed are much weaker than for lower SEP energies. Correlations with flare intensity are broadly similar or weaker. Strong correlations are seen between >300 MeV data and GLE properties from NM data. The results of our work can be utilized in future forecasting models for both high energy SEP and GLE events.

The role of low-energy electrons in the charging process of LISA test masses

The estimate of the total electron yield is fundamental for our understanding of the test-mass charging associated with cosmic rays in the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) Pathfinder mission and in the forthcoming gravitational wave observatory LISA. To unveil the role of low energy electrons in this process owing to galactic and solar energetic particle events, in this work we study the interaction of keV and sub-keV electrons with a gold slab using a mixed Monte Carlo (MC) and ab-initio framework. We determine the energy spectrum of the electrons emerging from such a gold slab hit by a primary electron beam by considering the relevant energy loss mechanisms as well as the elastic scattering events. We also show that our results are consistent with experimental data and MC simulations carried out with the GEANT4-DNA toolkit.

Comparison of JPL and ESP Solar Proton Fluence Models Using the Background‐Subtracted RDSv2.0 Data Set

AbstractHigh energy protons from solar energetic particle (SEP) events are a hazard to spacecraft systems and instruments. For interplanetary and geosynchronous‐Earth‐orbiting spacecraft, a mission's cumulative SEP fluence is an important consideration for hardware design. The total solar proton fluence for a mission can be dominated by a small number of very high‐fluence events. Because of the sporadic and unpredictable nature of these large events, data sets collected over multiple solar cycles are needed to construct a statistical model that can predict a mission's risk of seeing a given fluence exposure during its mission. Several statistical models have been developed, including the JPL model and the Emission of Solar Protons (ESP) model. The models produce somewhat different results, which could be due in part to the different data sets from which they were derived. To understand the sensitivity of predicted mission fluence to the choice of data set and to the statistical distribution to which that data set is fit, we present a comparison of the JPL and ESP cumulative fluence models as reformulated from the same SEP data set, a background‐subtracted version of the Reference Data Set Version 2.0 (RDSv2.0) based on data from IMP‐8 and GOES, covering 41 years of SEP events from 1974 to 2015 with proton energies between 5 and 289 MeV. The comparisons show that different modeling approaches can produce a factor of 2 or greater difference in the mission fluences even when the same data set is used for model development.

On the Seed Population of Solar Energetic Particles in the Inner Heliosphere

AbstractParticles measured in large gradual solar energetic particle events are believed to be predominantly accelerated at shocks driven by coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Ion charge state and composition analyses suggest that the origin of the seed particle population for the mechanisms of particle acceleration at CME‐driven shocks is not the bulk solar wind thermal material, but rather a suprathermal population present in the solar wind. This suprathermal population could result from remnant material accelerated in prior solar flares and/or preceding CME‐driven shocks. In this work, we examine the distribution of this suprathermal particle population in the inner heliosphere by combining a magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the solar wind and a Monte Carlo simulation of particle acceleration and transport. Assuming that the seed particles are uniformly distributed near the Sun by solar flares of various magnitudes, we study the longitudinal distribution of the seed population at multiple heliocentric distances. We consider a nonuniform background solar wind, consisting of fast and slow streams that lead to compression and rarefaction regions within the solar wind. Our simulations show that the seed population at a particular location (e.g., 1 au) is strongly modulated by the underlying solar wind configuration. Corotating interaction regions and merged interactions regions can strongly alter the energy spectra of the seed particle populations. In addition, cross‐field diffusion plays an important role in mitigating strong variations of the seed population in both space and energy.

Solar-MACH: An open-source tool to analyze solar magnetic connection configurations

The Solar MAgnetic Connection HAUS1 tool (Solar-MACH) is an open-source tool completely written in Python that derives and visualizes the spatial configuration and solar magnetic connection of different observers (i.e., spacecraft or planets) in the heliosphere at different times. For doing this, the magnetic connection in the interplanetary space is obtained by the classic Parker Heliospheric Magnetic Field (HMF). In close vicinity of the Sun, a Potential Field Source Surface (PFSS) model can be applied to connect the HMF to the solar photosphere. Solar-MACH is especially aimed at providing publication-ready figures for the analyses of Solar Energetic Particle events (SEPs) or solar transients such as Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). It is provided as an installable Python package (listed on PyPI and conda-forge), but also as a web tool at solar-mach.github.io that completely runs in any web browser and requires neither Python knowledge nor installation. The development of Solar-MACH is open to everyone and takes place on GitHub, where the source code is publicly available under the BSD 3-Clause License. Established Python libraries like sunpy and pfsspy are utilized to obtain functionalities when possible. In this article, the Python code of Solar-MACH is explained, and its functionality is demonstrated using real science examples. In addition, we introduce the overarching SERPENTINE project, the umbrella under which the recent development took place.