Solar Elemental Abundances Research Articles

Herschel/HIFI observations of ionised carbon in theβPictoris debris disk

Context: The dusty debris disk around the $\sim$20 Myr old main-sequence A-star {\beta} Pictoris is known to contain gas. Evidence points towards a secondary origin of the gas as opposed to being a direct remnant form the initial protoplanetary disk, although the dominant gas production mechanism is so far not identified. The origin of the observed overabundance of C and O compared to solar abundances of metallic elements, e.g. Na and Fe, is also unclear. Aims: Our goal is to constrain the spatial distribution of C in the disk, and thereby the gas origin and its abundance pattern. Methods: We used the HIFI instrument onboard Herschel to observe and spectrally resolve CII emission at 158 $\mu$m from the {\beta} Pic debris disk. Assuming Keplerian rotation, we use the spectrally resolved line profile to constrain the spatial distribution of the gas. Results: We show that most of the gas is located around $\sim$100 AU or beyond. We estimate a total C gas mass of $1.3\times10^{-2}$ M$_\oplus$. The data suggest that more gas is located on the southwest side of the disk than on the northeast side. The data are consistent with the hypothesis of a well-mixed gas (constant C/Fe ratio throughout the disk). Assuming instead a spatial profile expected from a simplified accretion disk model, we found it to give a significantly worse fit to the observations. Conclusions: Since the bulk of the gas is found outside 30 AU, we argue that the cometary objects known as "falling evaporating bodies" are unlikely to be the dominant source of gas; production from grain-grain collisions or photodesorption seems more likely. The incompatibility of the observations with a simplified accretion disk model could favour a preferential depletion explanation for the overabundance of C and O. More stringent constraints on the spatial distribution will be available from ALMA observations of CI at 609 $\mu$m.

THE PUZZLING CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GJ 436B'S ATMOSPHERE: INFLUENCE OF TIDAL HEATING ON THE CHEMISTRY

The dissipation of the tidal energy deposited on eccentric planets may induce a heating of the planet that affects its atmospheric thermal structure. Here we study the influence of tidal heating on the atmospheric composition of the eccentric (e = 0.16) "hot Neptune" GJ 436b, for which inconclusive chemical abundances are retrieved from multiwavelength photometric observations carried out during primary transit and secondary eclipse. We build up a one-dimensional model of GJ 436b's atmosphere in the vertical direction and compute the pressure-temperature and molecular abundances profiles for various plausible internal temperatures of the planet (up to 560 K) and metallicities (from solar to 100 times solar), using a radiative-convective model and a chemical model which includes thermochemical kinetics, vertical mixing, and photochemistry. We find that the CO/CH4 abundance ratio increases with metallicity and tidal heating, and ranges from 1/20 to 1000 within the ranges of metallicity and internal temperature explored. Water vapour locks most of the oxygen and reaches a very high abundance, whatever the metallicity and internal temperature of the planet. The CO2/H2O abundance ratio increases dramatically with metallicity, and takes values between 1e-5-1e-4 with solar elemental abundances and 0.1 for a metallicity 100 times solar. None of the atmospheric models based on solid physical and chemical grounds provide a fully satisfactory agreement with available observational data, although the comparison of calculated spectra and observations seem to point to models with a high metallicity and efficient tidal heating, in which high CO/CH4 abundance ratios and warm temperatures in the dayside atmosphere are favoured.

PROPERTIES OF DUST GRAINS PROBED WITH EXTINCTION CURVES

Modern data of the extinction curve from the ultraviolet to the near infrared are revisited to study the property of dust grains in the Milky Way (MW) and the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). We confirm that the graphite-silicate mixture of grains yields the observed extinction curve with the simple power-law distribution of the grain size but with a cutoff at some maximal size: the parameters are tightly constrained to be $q = 3.5 \pm 0.2$ for the size distribution $a^{-q}$ and the maximum radius $a_{max} = 0.24 \pm 0.05$ um, for both MW and SMC. The abundance of grains, and hence the elemental abundance, is constrained from the reddening versus hydrogen column density, E(B-V)/N_H. If we take the solar elemental abundance as the standard for the MW, >56 % of carbon should be in graphite dust, while it is <40 % in the SMC using its available abundance estimate. This disparity and the relative abundance of C to Si explain the difference of the two curves. We find that 50-60 % of carbon may not necessarily be in graphite but in the amorphous or the glassy phase. Iron may also be in the metallic phase or up to ~80 % in magnetite rather than in silicates, so that the Mg/Fe ratio in astronomical olivine is arbitrary. With these substitutions the parameters of the grain size remain unchanged. The mass density of dust grains relative to hydrogen is $\rho_{dust}/\rho_H = 1/(120 {+10 \atop -16})$ for the MW and $1/(760 {+70 \atop -90}) for the SMC under some abundance constraints. We underline the importance of the wavelength-dependence slope of the extinction curve in the near infrared in constructing the dust model: if $A_{\lambda} \propto \lambda^{-gamma}$ with gamma ~ 1.6, the power-law grain-size model fails, whereas it works if gamma ~ 1.8-2.0.

C/O RATIO AS A DIMENSION FOR CHARACTERIZING EXOPLANETARY ATMOSPHERES

Until recently, infrared observations of exoplanetary atmospheres have typically been interpreted using models that assumed solar elemental abundances. With the chemical composition fixed, attempts have been made to classify hot Jupiter atmospheres on the basis of stellar irradiation. However, recent observations have revealed deviations from predictions based on such classification schemes, and chemical compositions retrieved from some datasets have also indicated non-solar abundances. In hot hydrogen-dominated atmospheres, the C/O ratio critically influences the relative concentrations of several spectroscopically dominant molecules. Between a C/O of 0.5 (solar value) and 2, the H2O and CH4 abundances can vary by several orders of magnitude in the observable atmosphere, and new hydrocarbon species such as HCN and C2H2 become prominent for C/O >= 1, while the CO abundance remains almost unchanged. Furthermore, a C/O >= 1 can preclude a strong thermal inversion due to TiO and VO in a hot Jupiter atmosphere, since TiO and VO are naturally under-abundant for C/O >= 1. We, therefore, suggest a new two-dimensional classification scheme for hydrogen-dominated exoplanetary atmospheres with irradiation (or temperature) and C/O ratio as the two dimensions. We define four classes in this 2-D space (O1, O2, C1, and C2) with distinct chemical, thermal and spectral properties. We characterize the thermal structures and C/O ratios of six hot Jupiters (XO-1b, CoRoT-2b, WASP-14b, WASP-19b, WASP-33b, and WASP-12b) in the framework of our proposed 2D classification scheme. While the data for several systems in our sample are consistent with carbon-rich atmospheres (i.e. C/O >= 1), new observations are required to conclusively constrain the C/O ratios in their atmospheres. We discuss how observations using existing and forthcoming facilities can constrain C/O ratios in exoplanetary atmospheres.

JUPITER MODELS WITH IMPROVED AB INITIO HYDROGEN EQUATION OF STATE (H-REOS.2)

The amount and distribution of heavy elements in Jupiter gives indications on the process of its formation and evolution. Core mass and metallicity predictions however depend on the equations of state used, and on model assumptions. We present an improved ab initio hydrogen equation of state, H-REOS.2 and compute the internal structure and thermal evolution of Jupiter within the standard three-layer approach. The advance over our previous Jupiter models with H-REOS.1 by Nettelmann et al.(2008) is that the new models are also consistent with the observed 2 or more times solar heavy element abundances in Jupiter's atmosphere. Such models have a rock core mass Mcore=0-8 ME, total mass of heavy elements MZ=28-32 ME, a deep internal layer boundary at 4 or more Mbar, and a cooling time of 4.4-5.0 Gyrs when assuming homogeneous evolution. We also calculate two-layer models in the manner of Militzer et al.(2008) and find a comparable large core of 16-21 ME, out of which ~11 ME is helium, but a significantly higher envelope metallicity of 4.5 times solar. According to our preferred three-layer models, neither the characteristic frequency (nu0 ~156 microHz) nor the normalized moment of inertia (~0.276) are sensitive to the core mass but accurate measurements could well help to rule out some classes of models.

Nuclear astrophysics with neutrons

Neutrons play a crucial role in astrophysics during the heavy element nucleosynthesis. The largest fraction of isotopes heavier than iron is produced by neutron capture processes on short (r process) and long timescales (s process). During the ``slow neutron capture process'' (s process) heavier elements are produced by successive captures of in-situ produced neutrons from the reactions 13C(α,n)16O and 22Ne(α,n)25Mg (with densities of 106−1010 cm−3) in the interior of stars and following β-decays. With this scenario the reaction path runs along the valley of stability up to 209Bi and produces about 50% of the solar abundances of the heavy elements. Important nuclear physics parameters for s-process nucleosynthesis are neutron capture cross sections (for En = 0.3–300 keV, corresponding to stellar temperatures between kT= 8 and 90 keV) and β-decay half-lives. Neutron capture measurements can be performed via activation in a quasi-stellar neutron spectrum utilizing several (p,n) reactions, or by the time-of-flight technique. The ``rapid neutron capture process'' (r process) is responsible for the remaining 50% of the solar abundances. Here neutrons with densities of 1020−1030 cm−3 are captured on a very fast timescale (ms) during a Core Collapse Supernova in a region close to the forming neutron star. The r-process nuclei are thus very short-lived, neutron-rich isotopes up to the actinides, which can only be produced and investigated at large-scale radioactive-beam facilities. Here the most important nuclear physics parameters are masses, half-lives, and at later stages also β-delayed neutrons. This paper will summarize the role of neutrons in nuclear astrophysics and give a short overview about the related astrophysics programs at the GSI Helmholtz research center and the FRANZ facility in Germany.

HD 210111: a new λ Bootis-type spectroscopic binary system

The small group of lambda Bootis stars comprises late B to early F-type stars, with moderate to extreme (up to a factor 100) surface underabundances of most Fe-peak elements and solar abundances of lighter elements (C, N, O, and S). The main mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon are atmospheric diffusion, meridional mixing and accretion of material from their surroundings. Especially spectroscopic binary (SB) systems with lambda Bootis type components are very important to investigate the evolutionary status and accretion process in more details. For HD 210111, also delta Scuti type pulsation was found which gives the opportunity to use the tools of asteroseismology for further investigations. The latter could result in strict constraints for the amount of diffusion for this star. Together with models for the accretion and its source this provides a unique opportunity to shed more light on these important processes. We present classification and high resolution spectra for HD 210111. A detailed investigation of the most likely combinations of single star components was performed. For this, composite spectra with different stellar astrophysical parameters were calculated and compared to the observations to find the best fitting combination. HD 210111 comprises two equal (within the estimated errors) stars with T(eff)=7400K, logg=3.8dex, [M/H]=-1.0dex and vsini=30km/s. This result is in line with other strict observational facts published so far for this object. It is only the third detailed investigated lambda Bootis type SB system, but the first one with a known IR-excess.

PHOTOELECTRIC CROSS-SECTIONS OF GAS AND DUST IN PROTOPLANETARY DISKS

We provide simple polynomial fits to the X-ray photoelectric cross-sections (0.03 < E < 10keV) for mixtures of gas and dust found in protoplanetary disks. Using the solar elemental abundances of Asplund et al. (2009) we treat the gas and dust components separately, facilitating the further exploration evolutionary processes such as grain settling and gain growth. We find that blanketing due to advanced grain-growth (a_max > 1 micron) can reduce the X-ray opacity of dust appreciably at E_X ~ 1keV, coincident with the peak of typical T Tauri X-ray spectra. However, the reduction of dust opacity by dust settling, which is known to occur in protoplanetary disks, is probably a more significant effect. The absorption of 1-10keV X-rays is dominated by gas opacity once the dust abundance has been reduced to about 1% of its diffuse interstellar value. The gas disk establishes a floor to the opacity at which point X-ray transport becomes insensitive to further dust evolution. Our choice of fitting function follows that of Morrison & McCammon (1983), providing a degree of backward-compatibility.

Spectroscopic Binaries Among λ Bootis-type Stars

AbstractThe small group of λ Bootis stars comprises late B to early F-type stars, with moderate to extreme (up to a factor 100) surface under-abundances of most Fe-peak elements and solar abundances of lighter elements (C, N, O, and S). The main mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon are atmospheric diffusion, meridional mixing, and accretion of material from their surroundings. Especially spectroscopic binary (SB) systems with λ Bootis-type components are very important to investigate the evolutionary status and accretion process in more details. Because also δ Scuti type pulsation was found for several members, it gives the opportunity to use the tools of astroseismology for further investigations. We present the results of our long term efforts of detailed abundance analysis, orbital parameter estimation and photometric time series analysis for five well investigated SB systems.

High accuracy radiative data for plasma opacities1This article is part of a Special Issue on the 10th International Colloquium on Atomic Spectra and Oscillator Strengths for Astrophysical and Laboratory Plasmas.

Opacity, which gives the measure of the radiation transport in plasmas, is caused by the repeated absorption and emission of the propagating radiation by the constituent plasma elements. Microscopically, opacity (κ) depends mainly on two radiative processes: (i) photo-excitation (bound-bound transition) and (ii) photo-ionization (bound-free transition) in addition to electron-photon scattering. The monochromatic opacity κ(ν) at photon frequency ν is determined by the atomic parameters, oscillator strengths (f), and photo-ionization cross sections (σPI). However, total monochromatic opacity is obtained from summed contributions of all possible transitions from all ionization stages of all elements in the source. The calculation of accurate parameters for such a large number of transitions has been the main problem for obtaining accurate opacities. The overall mean opacity, such as the Rosseland mean opacity (κR), depends also on the physical conditions, such as temperature, density, elemental abundances, and equation of state. The necessity for high-precision calculations for opacities may be exemplified by the existing problems, such as the determination of solar elemental abundances. With new computational developments under the Iron Project, we are able to calculate more accurate atomic parameters, such as oscillator strengths for large number of transitions using the relativistic Breit–Pauli R-matrix (BPRM) method. We are finding new features in photo-ionization, such as the existence of extensive and dominant resonant structures in the high-energy region not studied before. These new data should provide more accurate opacities in high-temperature plasmas and can be used to investigate the well-known solar abundance problem.

Argon, krypton, and xenon in the bulk solar wind as collected by the Genesis mission

We present bulk solar wind isotopic and elemental ratios for Ar, Kr, and Xe averaged from up to 14 individual analyses on silicon targets exposed to the solar wind for ∼2.3 years during NASA’s Genesis mission. All averages are given with 1 σ standard errors of the means and include the uncertainties of our absolute calibrations. The isotopic ratios 86Kr/ 84Kr and 129Xe/ 132Xe are 0.303 ± 0.001 and 1.06 ± 0.01, respectively. The elemental ratios 36Ar/ 84Kr and 84Kr/ 132Xe are 2390 ± 120 and 9.9 ± 0.3, respectively. Average fluxes of 84Kr and 132Xe in the bulk solar wind in atoms/(cm 2 s) are 0.166 ± 0.009 and 0.017 ± 0.001, respectively. The flux uncertainties also include a 2% uncertainty for the determination of the extracted areas. The bulk solar wind 36Ar/ 38Ar ratio of 5.50 ± 0.01 and the 36Ar flux of 397 ± 11 atoms/(cm 2 s) determined from silicon targets agree well with the 36Ar/ 38Ar ratio and the 36Ar flux determined earlier on a different type of target by Heber et al. (2009). A comparison of the solar wind noble gas/oxygen abundance ratios with those in the solar photosphere revealed a slight enrichment of Xe and, within uncertainties a roughly uniform depletion of Kr–He in the solar wind, possibly related to the first ionization potentials of the studied elements. Thus, the solar wind elemental abundances He–Kr display within uncertainties roughly photospheric compositions relative to each other. A comparison of the Genesis data with solar wind heavy noble gas data deduced from lunar regolith samples irradiated with solar wind at different times in the past reveals uniform 36Ar/ 84Kr ratios over the last 1–2 Ga but an increase of the 84Kr/ 132Xe ratio of about a factor of 2 during the same time span. The reason for this change in the solar wind composition remains unknown.

Heterogeneous accretion, composition and core–mantle differentiation of the Earth

A model of core formation is presented that involves the Earth accreting heterogeneously through a series of impacts with smaller differentiated bodies. Each collision results in the impactor's metallic core reacting with a magma ocean before merging with the Earth's proto-core. The bulk compositions of accreting planetesimals are represented by average solar system abundances of non-volatile elements (i.e. CI-chondritic), with 22% enhancement of refractory elements and oxygen contents that are defined mainly by the Fe metal/FeO silicate ratio. Based on an anhydrous bulk chemistry, the compositions of coexisting core-forming metallic liquid and peridotitic silicate liquid are calculated by mass balance using experimentally-determined metal/silicate partition coefficients for the elements Fe, Si, O, Ni, Co, W, Nb, V, Ta and Cr. Oxygen fugacity is fixed by the partitioning of Fe between metal and silicate and depends on temperature, pressure and the oxygen content of the starting composition. Model parameters are determined by fitting the calculated mantle composition to the primitive mantle composition using least squares minimization. Models that involve homogeneous accretion or single-stage core formation do not provide acceptable fits. In the most successful models, involving 24 impacting bodies, the initial 60–70% (by mass) of the Earth accretes from highly-reduced material with the final 30–40% of accreted mass being more oxidised, which is consistent with results of dynamical accretion simulations. In order to obtain satisfactory fits for Ni, Co and W, it is required that the larger (and later) impactor cores fail to equilibrate completely before merging with the Earth's proto-core, as proposed previously on the basis of Hf-W isotopic studies. Estimated equilibration conditions may be consistent with magma oceans extending to the core–mantle boundary, thus making core formation extremely efficient. The model enables the compositional evolution of the Earth's mantle and core to be predicted throughout the course of accretion. The results are consistent with the late accretion of the Earth's water inventory, possibly with a late veneer after core formation was complete. Finally, the core is predicted to contain ~5 wt.% Ni, ~8 wt.% Si, ~2 wt.% S and ~0.5 wt.% O.

SOLAR ABUNDANCE CORRECTIONS DERIVED THROUGH THREE-DIMENSIONAL MAGNETOCONVECTION SIMULATIONS

We explore the effect of the magnetic field when using realistic three-dimensional convection experiments to determine solar element abundances. By carrying out magnetoconvection simulations with a radiation-hydro code (the Copenhagen stagger code) and through a-posteriori spectral synthesis of three Fe I lines, we obtain evidence that moderate amounts of mean magnetic flux cause a noticeable change in the derived equivalent widths compared with those for a non-magnetic case. The corresponding Fe abundance correction for a mean flux density of 200 G reaches up to ~0.1 dex in magnitude. These results are based on space- and time-averaged line profiles over a time span of 2.5 solar hours in the statistically stationary regime of the convection. The main factors causing the change in equivalent widths, namely the Zeeman broadening and the modification of the temperature stratification, act in different amounts and, for the iron lines considered here, in opposite directions; yet, the resulting $|\Delta\log\epsilon_{\odot}(Fe)|$ coincides within a factor two in all of them, even though the sign of the total abundance correction is different for the visible and infrared lines. We conclude that magnetic effects should be taken into account when discussing precise values of the solar and stellar abundances and that an extended study is warranted.

Comparison of the oxidation state of Fe in comet 81P/Wild 2 and chondritic-porous interplanetary dust particles

The fragile structure of chondritic-porous interplanetary dust particles (CP-IDPs) and their minimal parent-body alteration have led researchers to believe these particles originate in comets rather than asteroids where aqueous and thermal alterations have occurred. The solar elemental abundances and atmospheric entry speed of CP-IDPs also suggest a cometary origin. With the return of the Stardust samples from Jupiter-family comet 81P/Wild 2, this hypothesis can be tested. We have measured the Fe oxidation state of 15 CP-IDPs and 194 Stardust fragments using a synchrotron-based x-ray microprobe. We analyzed ∼ 300 ng of Wild 2 material — three orders of magnitude more material than other analyses comparing Wild 2 and CP-IDPs. The Fe oxidation state of these two samples of material are > 2 σ different: the CP-IDPs are more oxidized than the Wild 2 grains. We conclude that comet Wild 2 contains material that formed at a lower oxygen fugacity than the parent-body, or parent bodies, of CP-IDPs. If all Jupiter-family comets are similar, they do not appear to be consistent with the origin of CP-IDPs. However, comets that formed from a different mix of nebular material and are more oxidized than Wild 2 could be the source of CP-IDPs.

The planetary system host HR 8799: on its λ Bootis nature

HR\,8799 is a $\lambda$ Bootis, $\gamma$ Doradus star hosting a planetary system and a debris disk with two rings. This makes this system a very interesting target for asteroseismic studies. This work is devoted to the determination of the internal metallicity of this star, linked with its $\lambda$ Bootis nature (i.e., solar surface abundances of light elements, and subsolar surface abundances of heavy elements), taking advantage of its $\gamma$ Doradus pulsations. This is the most accurate way to obtain this information, and this is the first time such a study is performed for a planetary-system-host star. We have used the equilibrium code CESAM and the non-adiabatic pulsational code GraCo. We have applied the Frequency Ratio Method (FRM) and the Time Dependent Convection theory (TDC) to estimate the mode identification, the Brunt-Va\"is\"al\"a frequency integral and the mode instability, making the selection of the possible models. When the non-seismological constraints (i.e its position in the HR diagram) are used, the solar abundance models are discarded. This result contradicts one of the main hypothesis for explaining the $\lambda$ Bootis nature, namely the accretion/diffusion of gas by a star with solar abundance. Therefore, according to these results, a revision of this hypothesis is needed. The inclusion of accurate internal chemical mixing processes seems to be necessary to explain the peculiar abundances observed in the surface of stars with internal subsolar metallicities. The use of the asteroseismological constraints, like those provided by the FRM or the instability analysis, provides a very accurate determination of the physical characteristics of HR 8799. However, a dependence of the results on the inclination angle $i$ still remains. The determination of this angle, more accurate multicolour photometric observations, and high resolution spectroscopy can definitively fix the mass and metallicity of this star.

Solar Chemical Abundances Determined with a CO5BOLD 3D Model Atmosphere

In the last decade, the photospheric solar metallicity as determined from spectroscopy experienced a remarkable downward revision. Part of this effect can be attributed to an improvement of atomic data and the inclusion of NLTE computations, but also the use of hydrodynamical model atmospheres seemed to play a role. This “decrease” with time of the metallicity of the solar photosphere increased the disagreement with the results from helioseismology. With a CO 5 BOLD 3D model of the solar atmosphere, the CIFIST team at the Paris Observatory re-determined the photospheric solar abundances of several elements, among them C, N, and O. The spectroscopic abundances are obtained by fitting the equivalent width and/or the profile of observed spectral lines with synthetic spectra computed from the 3D model atmosphere. We conclude that the effects of granular fluctuations depend on the characteristics of the individual lines, but are found to be relevant only in a few particular cases. 3D effects are not responsible for the systematic lowering of the solar abundances in recent years. The solar metallicity resulting from this analysis is Z=0.0153, Z/X=0.0209.

The chemical composition of the Sun

We present a redetermination of the solar abundances of all available elements. The new results have very recently been published by Asplund et al. (Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 47:481, 2009). The basic ingredients of this work, the main results and some of their implications are summarized hereafter.

Are periodic solar wind number density structures formed in the solar corona?

We present an analysis of the alpha to proton solar wind abundance ratio (AHe) during a period characterized by significant large size scale density fluctuations, focusing on an event in which the proton and alpha enhancements are anti‐correlated. In a recent study using 11 years (1995–2005) of solar wind observations from the Wind spacecraft, N. M. Viall et al. [2008] showed that periodic proton density structures occurred at particular radial length‐scales more often than others. The source of these periodic density structures is a significant and outstanding question. Are they generated in the interplanetary medium, or are they a relic of coronal activity as the solar wind was formed? We use AHe to answer this question, as solar wind elemental abundance ratios are not expected to change during transit. For this event, the anti‐phase nature of the AHe variations strongly suggests that periodic solar wind density structures originate in the solar corona.

The Chemical Composition of the Sun

The solar chemical composition is an important ingredient in our understanding of the formation, structure, and evolution of both the Sun and our Solar System. Furthermore, it is an essential reference standard against which the elemental contents of other astronomical objects are compared. In this review, we evaluate the current understanding of the solar photospheric composition. In particular, we present a redetermination of the abundances of nearly all available elements, using a realistic new three-dimensional (3D), time-dependent hydrodynamical model of the solar atmosphere. We have carefully considered the atomic input data and selection of spectral lines, and accounted for departures from local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) whenever possible. The end result is a comprehensive and homogeneous compilation of the solar elemental abundances. Particularly noteworthy findings are significantly lower abundances of C, N, O, and Ne compared to the widely used values of a decade ago. The new solar chemical composition is supported by a high degree of internal consistency between available abundance indicators, and by agreement with values obtained in the Solar Neighborhood and from the most pristine meteorites. There is, however, a stark conflict with standard models of the solar interior according to helioseismology, a discrepancy that has yet to find a satisfactory resolution.

Solar wind elemental abundances related to the Sun's open magnetic flux

Context. We present an investigation of the effects of solar magnetic field on the elemental abundance ratios of heavy ions in the solar wind.Aims. We compare the elemental abundance ratios Fe/O, Si/O, Mg/O, Ne/O, and C/O over the 23rd solar cycle, attention being given to the varying fraction of open magnetic flux on the visible side of the solar disc.Methods. We use ACE solar wind data, the current sheet source surface (CSSS) model of the corona, and SoHO/MDI data to relate solar wind compositional properties with the fraction of open magnetic flux on the Sun. We include both a quasi-stationary and intermittent solar wind.Results. For the six investigated solar wind speed ranges, the elemental composition shows a similar FIP-bias of the quasi-stationary solar wind composition with respect to the photosphere but with three plateaus separating low-, mid-, and high-FIP elements. The average enrichment factor for the low-FIP element group (Mg, Fe, Si) with respect to the photospheric values is between 1.67 and 2.47 when the fraction of open magnetic flux on the visible side of the solar disc is above 14%, and it ranges from 2.78 to 4.15 when this fraction is less than 7%. They are close to the enrichment of low-FIP elements with respect to the photospheric values in quasi-stationary fast- and slow- solar wind, which implies similar fractionation mechanisms for the stationary solar wind and the intermittent solar wind. In the low alpha ( is the fraction of open magnetic flux on the visible side of the solar disc), the enrichment of heavy elements for the fast solar wind is well correlated with the high fraction of CMEs. In addition, both the charge state ratios and the elemental abundance ratios exhibit a lower dependence on alpha in a slow solar wind than in a fast solar wind. The dependence of the charge state ratios on alpha is correlated with FIP, which implies that solar magnetic effects play a non-negligible role in the elemental fractionation of the solar wind. We suggest that lower hybrid waves play an important role in the possible linkage between solar magnetic field and elemental fractionation.