Sol-gel Hydrothermal Method Research Articles

Structural and Electrical Properties of Glucose Biosensors Based on ZnO and ZnO-CuO Nanostructures

Background: Nanostructured metal oxides have stimulated tremendous efforts for sightseeing glucose bio-sensing applications. They have been mostly investigated to fabricate highly sensitive, stabilized and ultrafast biosensors. Objective: Fabrication and characterization of glucose biosensors based on zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructured thin films modified by copper oxide (CuO) nanostructures in order to obtain stabilized ZnO:CuO biosensors with high sensitivity and fast response time. Methods: The components of the investigated biosensors are synthesized using the hydrothermal solgel method by dip-coating the sensing layer on indium tin oxide-coated glass substrates (ITO). The structural and electrical properties of the fabricated biosensors are investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and I-V characteristics. Results: SEM micrographs indicate that ZnO nanostructures exhibit an interconnected sheet-like patterns. These sheets are thin and distributed randomly on the ITO substrate. SEM images of ZnO:CuO reveal that the morphology of nanostructured thin films is composed of flower-like patterns. The XRD patterns of ZnO and modified ZnO:CuO thin films subjected to thermal annealing show that thin films exhibit a high degree of crystallinity with minor traces of impurity phases. The biosensors' key parameters are calculated and interpreted by measuring the I-V characteristics to elucidate the sensitivity and reproducibility of measurements performed for various glucose concentrations. Furthermore, the electric current response of ZnO and ZnO:CuO biosensors are found to be linear and quadratic as a function of glucose concentration, respectively. The introduction of CuO into ZnO thin films leads to the enhancement of the sensitivity of the synthesized glucose biosensors for a high degree of precision in measuring glucose levels. Conclusion: Both sensors exhibit average sensitivities in the range (from 1 to 10 μA mM−1 cm−2) with quite good reproducibility. The unique property of this sensor is its ability to measure glucose concentrations at neutral pH conditions (i.e. pH = 7) using a simple, low cost and novel sensor design.

Synthesis, characterization and thermoelectric properties of Ca substituted nanostructured SrMnO3 by sol-gel hydrothermal method

Perovskite manganites are pure and stable at elevated temperatures due to its thermal and chemical stability. Pure and Ca substituted SrMnO3 nanoparticles have been prepared by sol-gel hydrothermal method. Structural, micro structural, elemental, functional, optical, electrical and thermoelectric properties have been investigated by XRD, Raman, SEM with EDAX, FTIR, UV–Vis Spectroscopy and Physical properties respectively. Powder X-ray Diffraction studies reveals the formation of the single phase without secondary phases. Poly vinyl pyrrolidone as a capping agent decreases the grain size of the nanoparticles with different nanostructures. Electrical conductivity increases but thermal conductivity is strongly reduced due to grain size reduction. Thermoelectric properties are evaluated from ambient to 300 K. Ca2+ substituted at A-site of SrMnO3 nanoparticles leads to oxygen deficient calcium manganese oxide nanoparticles. The major charge carriers are an electron that reveals that pure and Ca substituted SrMnO3 nanoparticles are n-type promising thermoelectric oxides with high thermoelectric power.

Enriched Second-Harmonic Generation in Meta-Phase Barium Titanate Nanostructures Synthesized by Sol-Gel Hydrothermal Method

Enriched Second-Harmonic Generation in Meta-Phase Barium Titanate Nanostructures Synthesized by Sol-Gel Hydrothermal Method

Modification of phosphorus-doped carbon coating enhances the electrochemical performance of LiFe0.8Mn0.2PO4 cathode material

Overcoming the shortcomings related to low conductivity and slow ion diffusion for olivine-type transition metal phosphates is of vital significance to broaden their applicability in rapid charging devices. Herein, the modification of phosphorus-doped carbon coating is performed on LiFe0.8Mn0.2PO4 (LFMP) to prepare LFMP/C-P via a novel sol-gel hydrothermal method. Results of the morphology and electrochemical performance tests indicate that a three-dimensional conductive channel is formed surrounding the well-distributed LFMP/C-P nanoparticles to promote ion and electron transmission. Moreover, the phosphorus-doped carbon coating not only enhances the electronic conductivity, which guarantees the rapid electronic transfer as an electron donor through the “carrier conduction” mechanism, but also connects the carbon coating and material bulk as a bridge. These characteristics endow the LFMP/C-P composite with excellent electrochemical performances, e.g., a reversible discharge specific capacity of 93.6 mAh g−1 at 10 C and a capacity retention rate of 86.44% after 700 cycles at 10 C. This study provides a strategy to improve the rapid charge-discharge performance of electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries.

Synthesis and Characterization of Size-Controlled Titania Nanorods through Double Surfactants.

A synthetic technique based on a two-step sol-gel hydrothermal method using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and triblock copolymer PEO106-PPO70-PEO106 (F127) as double surfactants with the assistance of three amines (ethylamine (EA), diethylamine (DEA), and triethylamine (TEA)) for fabrications of anatase titania nanorods is proposed. The formation and growth mechanisms of TiO2 crystals are described. We discovered that crystal size reduces with an increase in the number of alkyl substituents on the nitrogen of amines because the steric hindrance of the bulky alkyl substituent around nitrogen suppresses the nucleation and crystal growth rate. The size of titania from 80 to 220 nm is modulated with concentrations of EA, DEA, and TEA. The amines are considered as catalysts for morphological evolution of TiO2 crystals. The results indicate that the incorporation of double surfactants (F127-CTAB) has a dual role, acting as a chelating agent for titania against external forces and a capping agent inhibiting the three-dimensional growth of TiO2 crystals.

Facile synthesis, characterization, and photoluminescence property of lanthanum incorporated TUD-1

In the current study, for first time trivalent lanthanum (La) ions was incorporated with different loading into the 3D-sponge-like structured of TUD-1 mesoporous material. All fabricated materials were synthesized via applied one-pot sol-gel hydrothermal method. Different physical and chemical characterization techniques such as ICP, XRD, SEM, EDX, mapping, N2-sorption, DR-UV-Vis, HR-TEM, Raman and XPS were applied to characterize the synthetized materials. The prepared materials confirmed the formation of isolated active sites at low loading of lanthanum La+3 ions into TUD-1 silica matrix. On the another side, the nanoparticles of La2O3 with average size 10–50 nm of oxide crystals were found into the pores of TUD-1 at high loading of Lanthanum. The photoluminescence (PL) property of the synthetized samples were investigated under different excitation wavelengths ranged from UV to visible illumination. La-TUD-1 showed exhibited high emission PL spectra under the illumination of 346 nm, 380 nm, 470 nm, and 580 nm wavelength. The obtained PL emission bands are related to blue and green emission and hence can be employed as promised blue-green LEDs and biological labeling in different future application.

Visible-light assisted production of hydrocarbon fuels from carbon dioxide using Cu2O@MnCo2O4 heterojunction

The recent observation of global warming is a crucial concern due to the excessive emission of CO2 from the excessive fossil fuels burning. To maintain the environment sustainably and green, it needs to reduce CO2 emission or utilize CO2 emitted into C1 hydrocarbons, which can be used as fuels in many applications. Here, we have developed Cu2O doped MnCo2O4 heterojunction, a photocatalytic material for reducing CO2 into CO and CH4. In the heterojunction, Cu2O nanoparticles were successfully deposited onto MnCo2O4 semiconducting surface by sol-gel hydrothermal method. Cu2O@MnCo2O4 heterojunction and the individual semiconductors, Cu2O and MnCo2O4, have been characterized in detail using various analytical techniques. Also, the products of CO2 photoreduction were confirmed by the GC-MS. The heterojunction's improved photocatalytic activity was overcome by the effective charge separation between the Cu2O and MnCo2O4 interface investigated by the photoluminescence spectroscopy, which facilitated the efficient CO2 reduction in visible-light irradiation. The heterojunction's excellent photocatalytic activity was retained after several runs under the experimental condition, which proved that the present heterojunction is a superb candidate for producing hydrocarbon fuels from CO2.

Facile Extraction and Characterization of Silica Nanoparticles from Corn Stalk by Sol-Gel Hydrothermal Methods

Lightweight aggregates, drug delivery and energy storage are some of the numerous applications of silica nanoparticles. Amorphous silica was extracted from corn stalk using the sol-gel hydrothermal method and nanostructured using Hexadecyl trimethyly ammonium bromide (CTAB) as template. The crystallographic structures of synthesized silica nanoparticles was characterized using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). Functional groups was determine using fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) techniques, specific surface area was determine using the Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) method. The presence of SiO2 was confirmed by Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), surface morphology and particle size was examine using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transition electron microscope (TEM). This study provide a silica nanoparticles sourced from agricultural biomass for cutting-edge applications including drug delivery.

The Role of PVA Surfactant on Magnetic Properties of MnFe2O4 Nanoparticles Synthesized by Sol-Gel Hydrothermal Method

The Role of PVA Surfactant on Magnetic Properties of MnFe2O4 Nanoparticles Synthesized by Sol-Gel Hydrothermal Method

Significantly Improved Dielectric Performance of Poly(1-butene)-Based Composite Films via Filling Polydopamine Modified Ba(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3-Coated Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Nanoparticles.

The low dielectric constant of the nonpolar polymer poly(1-butene) (PB-1) limits its application as a diaphragm element in energy storage capacitors. In this work, Ba(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3-coated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (BZT@MWCNTs) were first prepared by using the sol–gel hydrothermal method and then modified with polydopamine (PDA) via noncovalent polymerization. Finally, PB-1 matrix composite films filled with PDA-modified BZT@MWCNTs nanoparticles were fabricated through a solution-casting method. Results indicated that the PDA-modified BZT@MWCNTs had good dispersion and binding force in the PB-1 matrix. These characteristics improved the dielectric and energy storage performances of the films. Specifically, the PDA-modified 10 vol% BZT@ 0.5 vol% MWCNTs/PB-1 composite film exhibited the best dielectric performance. At 1 kHz, the dielectric constant of this film was 25.43, which was 12.7 times that of pure PB-1 films. Moreover, its dielectric loss was 0.0077. Furthermore, under the weak electric field of 210 MV·m−1, the highest energy density of the PDA-modified 10 vol% BZT@ 0.5 vol% MWCNTs/PB-1 composite film was 4.57 J·cm−3, which was over 3.5 times that of PB-1 film (≈1.3 J·cm−3 at 388 MV·m−1).

([n-C4H9)4 N]3PMo2W9(Sn4+.xH2O)O39/TiO2): a new visible photocatalyst for photodegradation of DR16 characterization and optimization process by RSM

Optimization of the photodegradation of direct red 16 (DR16) under visible light irradiation in the presence of new photocatalyst [n-C4H9)4 N]3PMo2W9(Sn4+.xH2O)O39/TiO2 (PMoWSn/TiO2) was investigated. PMoWSn/TiO2 with different ratios of PMoWSn to TiO2 (2, 11, and 20%) were synthesized by modified sol–gel hydrothermal method. Characterization of the prepared nanocatalysts was carried out by photoluminescence spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared, field emission scanning electron microscopy, Brunauer Emmett–Teller, and diffuse reflectance spectra. Factorial experimental design was applied to study the interaction effects of five operational variables including DR16 concentration, polyoxometalate content, catalyst loading, reaction time, and pH on the photodegradation process performance. By increasing the amount of PMoWSn, the recombination rate of electrons and holes was decreased and redshift to visible range was observed. Bandgap of the photocatalysts was evaluated from Tauc and Mott–Schottky plots. The efficient and suitable photocatalytic performance of photocatalyst can be attributed to the efficient separation of photo-generated electron–hole pairs and polarization resistance of the catalyst evaluated by Nyquist and Bode plots extracted from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The results showed that the photocatalytic activity of 20-PMoWSn/TiO2 was better than the other nanocatalysts. A central composite design based on response surface methodology was successfully used in optimization of the photodegradation of DR16. The optimum conditions were achieved at acidic pH (3), DR16 concentration of 20 mg/L, and polyoxometalate loading of 20 wt.%. Also this catalyst showed excellent reusability at least after four runs.

Slurry-Phase Hydrocracking of a Decalin–Phenanthrene Mixture by MoS2/SiO2–ZrO2 Bifunctional Catalysts

Slurry-phase hydrocracking is one of the most advanced technologies for the conversion of inferior heavy oil to light fuel oil. In this work, MoS₂ was combined with SiO₂–ZrO₂ mixed oxides to offer a new class of bifunctional catalysts for slurry-phase hydrocracking. In the bifunctional catalysts, SiO₂–ZrO₂ mixed oxides with abundant mesopores and acid sites act as cracking catalysts. They were presynthesized by a sol–gel-hydrothermal method and systematically characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), N₂ adsorption, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), NH₃-temperature programed desorption (NH₃-TPD), and in situ diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS). The effect of Si/Zr molar ratios on the chemical structure, especially the acid properties of SiO₂–ZrO₂ mixed oxides were examined. Subsequently, a mixture of decalin–phenanthrene was selected as the model system to investigate the performance of bifunctional catalysts. It was found that the conversions of decalin and phenanthrene were significantly improved for MoS₂/SiO₂–ZrO₂ bifunctional catalysts. Further analysis indicated that the Bronsted acid sites of SiO₂–ZrO₂ mixed oxides played an important role in the improvement of decalin and phenanthrene conversions.

Study on adenosine loading capacity of porous nanosilica for application in drug delivery

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are used as drug delivery materials because of their outstanding features such as large surface area, easy synthesis and high biocompability. In this study, inorganic mesoporous nanosilica material, MCM-41, was synthesized by sol-gel hydrothermal method using tetraethyl orthosilicate precursor (TEOS). The material structure and composition were analyzed by X-ray power diffraction (P-XRD), N2 adsorption isotherm, thermalgravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Its morphology was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The results showed that synthesized MCM-41 has a spherical shape, homogeneous with an average size of 100 nm. The specific surface area is 845 m2 g􀀀1, the pore size is approximately 35 Å. It has high thermal stability until 800oC. FT-IR result showed the formation of the Si-O-Si bond in the structure. The adenosine loading capacity of MCM-41 was investigated based on the influence of loading factors including adenosine concentration, time, solvent, and temperature. The kinetics and thermodynamics of the adsorption processes were also studied. The adenosine loading ability on MCM-41 is significant high, approximately 1699 mg g􀀀1. The kinetic and thermodynamic results showed that the drug adsorbed of MCM-41 occurred with fast rate and spontaneously. Moreover, the release profile of adenosine proved that the drug release process occurred quickly which is suitable for application in acute disease treatment.

A New Route for the Synthesis of Visible-Light Driven Ag,V Co-Doped TiO2 for Degradation of Organic Pollutant

A novel Ag,V co-doped TiO2 was synthesized for the first time by a simple sol–gel hydrothermal method and was compared to pure and single doped TiO2. A red shift in the light absorption was observed and significant band gap reduction for Ag,V-TiO2 (2.2 eV) as compared to Ag-TiO2 (2.8 eV), V-TiO2 (2.3 eV), and TiO2 (2.9 eV) was observed. XRD results revealed both anatase and rutile phases. Ag,V-TiO2 the most active photocatalyst showed excellent photocatalytic abilities under visible light irradiation, achieving 99.83% MB removal within 15 min. The photocatalytic degradation performance had a direct relation with the intensity ratio of [101]/[110] plane of anatase to rutile phase of prepared TiO2 based photocatalysts.

Structure and electrical properties of BCZT ceramics derived from microwave-assisted sol\u2013gel-hydrothermal synthesized powders

A novel microwave-assisted sol–gel-hydrothermal method was employed to rapidly synthesize Ba0.85Ca0.15Zr0.1Ti0.9O3 (BCZT) powders. The effects of reaction time on the structure, crystallinity, purity and morphology of the products were investigated. The results of XRD, FTIR, SEM and TEM indicated that BCZT powders could be obtained in even 60 min at a low synthesis temperature of 180 °C, which were well-crystallized with stoichiometric composition and uniform grain size (~ 85 nm). BCZT ceramic derived from the rapidly-synthesized powders had a dense microstructure and good electrical properties (εm = 9579, d33 = 496 pC/N, 2Pr = 25.22 µC/cm2, 2Ec = 7.52 kV/cm). The significant electrical properties were closely related to the high activity of the BCZT powders, resulting from the rapid microwave-assisted sol–gel-hydrothermal process.

Encapsulation of Cu-doped TiO2 nanocomposites with the understanding of weak photocatalytic properties for sunscreen applications

We report the fabrication and characterization of varying concentration (x) of copper (Cu)-doped TiO2 nanocomposites [Cu( x )TiO2(1- x )] exploring the photocatalytic properties for sunscreen applications. The Cu-doped TiO2 nanocomposite [Cu( x )TiO2(1- x )] has been synthesized by the low-temperature lab-scale sol-gel hydrothermal method. The concentration of Cu in TiO2 has been chosen as 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% by weight. With varying concentrations of [Cu( x )TiO2(1- x )], the structural and morphological properties are obtained using x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effect of optical properties for varying concentrations of Cu2+ ions in TiO2 has been studied using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy. Further, by exploring the photocatalytic properties of fabricated [Cu( x )TiO2(1- x )] has been utilized for sunscreen applications. The concept of sunscreen application of Cu-doped TiO2 can be viewed from the fact that the bare TiO2 generates free radicals that can raise the risk of harmful effects on the skin. Our aim is to synthesize the nontoxic material which can either stop or slow the process of generation of free radicals under sun exposure. In the sun exposure, the risk of free radicals produces by pristine TiO2 can be reduced by doping of copper with titania. We have been observed that [Cu( x )TiO2(1- x )] with x equaling 4% (rutile phase) displays the most effective UV-blocking property with weak photocatalytic activity and is found to be better for sunscreen application. Therefore, Cu-doped TiO2 nanocomposite maintains all the properties of TiO2 at nanoscale as well as improves the concerning property of the cosmetic industry.

A reusable visible driven N and C–N doped TiO2 magnetic nanocomposites for photodegradation of direct red 16 azo dye in water and wastewater

ABSTRACT The visible active N-doped TiO2/ZnFe2O4 (urea–TiO2/ZnFe2O4) and CN-codoped TiO2/ZnFe2O4 (L-asparagine–TiO2/ZnFe2O4) nanocomposites were successfully synthesized by the sol–gel–hydrothermal method for direct red 16 (DR16) photodegradation. Their properties of the prepared nanocomposites were analysed using XRD, FT-IR, FE-SEM, EDX, DRS and PL tests. The DRS and PL results confirmed a narrow band-gap energy and low recombination rate of photo-produced electron and hole pairs, respectively. The effect of adding various dopant agents (urea and L-asparagine) with different loadings and magnetic nanoparticle (ZnFe2O4) into TiO2 sol on the photodegradation of DR16 was also evaluated. As a result, the L-asparagine (2 wt. %)–TiO2/ZnFe2O4 is the best photocatalyst compared to the other modified TiO2 nanocomposites due to its narrow band gap and high quantum efficiency. The catalyst concentration (1–2 g/L), DR16 concentration (25–45 ppm), initial pH (4–10), and irradiation time (30–90 min) as numerical variables were also considered for photocatalytic process analysis and moulding by central composite design (CCD). The increase in the pH and dye concentration reduces the photodegradation efficiency while irradiation time and catalyst concentration effectively improved its photodegradation efficiency. The DR16 was completely removed at 25 ppm of DR16, initial pH of 4 and 1.5 g/L of photocatalyst after 90-min irradiation. The photoactivity test was also repeated four times by reused L-asparagine–TiO2/ZnFe2O4 photocatalyst at optimum conditions. The decrease of dye degradation and loss of photocatalyst were not significant which was approved by the good performance and high recovery capability of the prepared nanocomposite.

Gold Nanoparticles Supported on Nb2O5 for Low-Temperature CO Oxidation and as Cathode Materials for Li-ion Batteries

We prepared a series of Nb2O5 polymorphs by the sol-gel method and the sol-gel hydrothermal method. Gold nanoparticles supported on Nb2O5 were prepared by solid grinding method. Au on pseudohexagonal (TT-phase) Nb2O5 containing an amorphous phase exhibited higher catalytic activity for CO oxidation than did other Au/Nb2O5 polymorphs. For the electrochemical properties for cathode materials of Li-ion batteries, Nb2O5 (TT) exhibited high capacity of 208 mA h g-1, and the deposition of Au onto Nb2O5 (TT) improved the capacity to 232 mA h g-1. Capacity and CO oxidation activity were related; the higher the catalytic activity Au/Nb2O5 shows, the higher is the discharging capacity. From the characterization results, Nb2O5 (TT) contains oxygen vacancies (Nb4+ sites), and the oxygen vacancies of Nb2O5 (TT) would play an important role for CO oxidation and the performance for Li-ion batteries.

Synthesis of sodium titanate catalysts using a factorial design for biodiesel production

AbstractIn this work, the synthesis of sodium titanate for the biodiesel production was evaluated with emphasis on the synthesis parameters of titanates in the conversion of vegetable oil to biodiesel. Sodium titanate catalysts were synthesized via sol–gel hydrothermal method and tested as heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production, using a factorial design 2k. Four experimental factors were considered: NaOH concentration, hydrothermal temperature, TiO2/NaOH ratio, and calcination temperature, using as response variable the catalysts activity in soybean oil conversion to biodiesel. Titanates were characterized by XRD, SEM, and N2 physisorption techniques. The presence of tri and hexatitanate were confirmed. Trititanate was the most efficient in the conversion of soybean oil to biodiesel, achieving around 80% with an alcohol:oil molar ratio of 6:1 at 55°C for 5 hr and 300 rpm. Among the trititanate catalysts, the best performing sample showed a surface area of 217 m2/g with a porous size average of 4.8 nm related to nanotube structure with inter and intra particle mesoporosity. Conditions to prepare the efficient performing catalyst were as follows: NaOH concentration, 7.5 M; hydrothermal temperature, 130°C; TiO2/NaOH ratio, 0.06 g/mL; and calcination temperature, 600°C.

Conductivity relaxations and phase purity in strontium cobalt oxides prepared by numerous chemical routes

Strontium cobalt oxide (SrCoO3-δ) nanoparticles were successfully synthesized using; composite mediated hydrothermal (CMHM), without water and surfactants (WOWS) sol-gel and co-precipitation methods. The probable electrical conduction mechanism of synthesized strontium cobaltite was investigated via complex impedance analysis. Characterization techniques were employed to study the dependence of structure, homogeneity, physical parameters and electrical properties on synthesis procedures. After heat treatment, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) confirmed the formation of phase pure SrCoO3-δ powders synthesized with CMHM, WOWS sol-gel and co-precipitation methods. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra indicated the presence of fingerprint region of perovskite (ABO3-δ) structure. Raman spectroscopy revealed the internal motion of oxygen inside the CoO6 octahedra of SrCoO3-δ perovskite structure. A Raman phonon mode under 600 cm−1 position was identified which is commonly observed for such perovskite oxide. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images showed uniformly diffused, microporous and agglomerated sphere like morphology. Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and Thermogravimetry (TGA) verified formation of intermediate metal carbonates that decomposed to final product. Complex impedance spectroscopic plots (Nyquist plots) against frequency (20 Hz–3 MHz) discovered single semi-circular arcs in the low frequency region. These arcs showed that, grain boundary contribution is dominated over grain contribution to the total electrical conduction behavior. Modulus analysis disclosed non-Debye type conductivity relaxation in hydrothermally synthesized samples. The AC conductivity graphs followed Jonscher’s power law and hopping model. Hydrothermally synthesized samples exhibited minimum impedances and maximum AC conductivity, which makes them excellent candidate for cathode material in intermediate temperature range solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs) applications.