Sol Gel Dip-coating Method Research Articles

Electroless Copper Patterning on TiO2-Functionalized Mica for Flexible Electronics

The formation of conductive copper patterns on mica holds promise for developing cost-effective flexible electronics and sensing devices, though it is challenging due to the low adhesion of mica’s atomically flat surface. Herein, we present a wet-chemical method for copper patterning on flexible mica substrates via electroless copper deposition (Cu-ELD). The process involves pre-functionalizing 50 µm thick muscovite mica with a titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer, via a sol–gel dip-coating method with a titanium acetylacetonate-based sol. Photolithography is employed to selectively activate the TiO2-coated mica substrates for Cu-ELD, utilizing in situ photodeposited silver (Ag) nanoclusters as a catalyst. Copper is subsequently plated using a formaldehyde-based Cu-ELD bath, with the duration of deposition primarily determining the thickness and electrical properties of the copper layer. Conductive Cu layers with thicknesses in the 70–130 nm range were formed within 1–2 min of deposition, exhibiting an inverse relationship between plating time and sheet resistance, which ranged from 600 to 300 mΩ/sq. The electrochemical thickening of these layers to 1 μm further reduced the sheet resistance to 27 mΩ/sq. Finally, the potential of Cu-ELD patterning on TiO2-functionalized mica for creating functional sensing devices was demonstrated by fabricating a functional resistance temperature detector (RTD) on the titania surface.

In-situ synthesis of V2AlC@V2O5/TiO2 immobilized over honeycomb support with vanadium oxide electron transfer mediator for stimulating selective CO2 photoreduction through bi-reforming in a monolith reactor

Photocatalytic CO2 reduction to valuable chemicals and fuels is a practical approach for climate action; however, available photocatalysts and photoreactors are less efficient. In this work, well-designed V2AlC@V2O5 supported TiO2 and immobilized over honeycomb support for CO2 photoreduction in a monolith reactor have been investigated. The catalysts were loaded over the monolithic support using the sol-gel dip-coating method and found promising for higher light absorbance and charge separation. The performance of V2AlC@V2O5/TiO2 composite for photocatalytic CO2 reduction with water and bi-reforming of methanol was performed using a fixed bed and monolith photoreactor. Using V2AlC@V2O5/TiO2 with a fixed bed reactor and methanol–water mixture, a CO yield of 13.75 mmol g−1h−1 was produced, 26.39 and 38.19-fold higher than using water and pristine TiO2, respectively. Similarly, CH4 production was 1.97 and 12.33 folds higher than using water and TiO2 only, whereas, using water, production of H2 was not detected. The higher photoactivity of the composite with methanol was due to efficient photo-induced carrier separation due to the synergistic effect of V2AlC/V2O5 and more production of protons. Using a monolith photoreactor, CH4, CO and H2 production rates of 55.44, 35.51 and 1.638 mmol g−1h−1 were obtained, 166.50, 2.58 and 3.05 times more than those produced using a fixed bed reactor. This significantly higher photoactivity with monolith photoreactor was due to higher photon flux utilization with surface reactions, resulting in more production and utilization of photoinduced charge carriers. The highest QY after five consecutive cycles was 48.374, 25.358 and 1.51 % for CH4, CO and H2, which is 200.5, 2.54 and 3.87 folds higher than using the fixed bed, respectively. This work provides a new approach to designing and fabricating higher efficient and stable photocatalytic system for CO2 recycling, and it can be further employed for other energy-related applications.

Synthesis, characterization, and investigation of antibacterial activity of Novel CMC/CuO NPs/CQDs bionanocomposite coating

In recent decades, healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) have become a common problem in healthcare facilities such as hospitals. As a result, researchers are currently developing nanocomposite coatings that are strengthened with antibacterial nanoparticles. In this research, a novel antibacterial bionanocomposite coating based on carboxymethyl cellulose polymer/copper oxide nanoparticles/carbon quantum dots was coated on medical grade 316 stainless steel by sol-gel dip-coating method. The effect of the concentration of nanocomposite components was investigated at four different levels to determine the best ratio with the most antibacterial activity. Structural characteristics of nanocomposite and coating were investigated using different analysis methods. The coating analysis showed that reinforcements are uniformly distributed in the polymer matrix. Antibacterial test of disc diffusion was performed by the Kirby-Bauer method and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) antibacterial test. The results showed that bionanocomposite was effective in the MIC assays against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli with MIC values of 25 mg/ml and >50 mg/ml, respectively. The inhibition zones for E. coli and S. aureus were 17 and 32 mm, respectively, at 10 μg/disc of gentamicin. SEM images displayed significant and evident alterations in the structure of bacterial morphology, indicating cellular damage.

Enhancing the efficiency of the organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite cells using Al-doped ZnO as an Electron Transport Layer and CNTs as a Hole Transport Layer: An experimental and numerical study

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become the subject of much discussion in the photovoltaic field due to their excellent performance over the past few years. This study presents the production, characterization, and simulation of Al-doped ZnO (AZO) as an electron transport layer (ETL) at a concentration of 1% in organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells (PSC). We experimentally elaborate the AZO thin films using the sol-gel dip-coating method. We further examined the resulting film for structural, morphological, and optical properties for use in solar cells (SCs), using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), and UV–visible spectroscopy. Furthermore, this work presents an optimization process led by simulation that generates high performance using CNTs, CH3NH3PbI3, and AZO as a hole transport layer (HTL), absorber layer, and ETL respectively in solar cells using SCAPS 1D software. We have carefully examined the impact of several parameters, including the layer thicknesses, temperature, defect density of the absorber layer, defect density at interfaces between AZO and perovskite and perovskite and CNTs, and series and shunt resistances (Rs and Rsh). An optimized PSC of ITO/AZO/MAPbI3/CNTs/Au is designed here with an efficiency of 25.62%, open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.3955 V, fill factor (FF) of 72.32%, and current density (Jsc) of 25.382 mA/cm2. Our findings provide a remarkable efficiency using the proposed model; nevertheless, as researchers, we still need to simulate and conduct experiments to increase the cell's efficiency to potentially use it in solar cells(SCs).

Structural investigations of ZnO nanostructure

Undoped and Mn-doped ZnO samples with different percentages of Mn content (1, 5 and 10 at%) were synthesized by a dip coating sol–gel method. We have studied the structural, chemical and optical properties of the samples by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and UV-visible spectroscopy. The XRD spectra show that all the samples are hexagonal wurtzite structures. We note that doping favors c-axis orientation along (002) planes. Up to 5 at% of Mn doping level, the c- axis lattice parameter shifts towards higher values with the increase of manganese content in the films. The expansion of the lattice constant of ZnO–Mn indicates that Mn is really doped into the ZnO. The SEM investigations of all samples revealed that the crystallites are of nanometer size. The sur- face quality of the ZnO–Mn film increases with Mn doping but no significant change of the grain size is observed from SEM images. The transmittance spectra show that the trans parency of all the samples is greater than 85 %. We note, also, that a small doping (1 %) lowered the refractive index while the thickness of the layers and the gap increase. However, on raising the proportion of Mn beyond 5 %, practically the same values of index and gap as pure ZnO are found.

Improving the optical properties of CuCoMnOx spinel absorber using ZnO nanorod arrays for thermal collector and photocatalytic applications

Solar-selective and high entropy materials are one of the key factors for thermal applications. CuCoMnOx (CCMO) spinel compound is also a suitable material for this purpose due to its spin-allowed transitions in partially filled d orbitals. In this study, the CCMO absorber compound was coated on ZnO nanorod-coated aluminum (Al) substrates for the first time by the sol-gel dip-coating method, and its optical, structural, and morphological properties were examined. According to the results obtained, ZnO nanorods increased the active surface area of the Al substrate and accordingly increased the absorptance value of the CCMO material from 87 % to 94 %. Analyzes performed with FT-IR spectrometry showed that the thermal emittance values were 90 % and 67 % for Al/CCMO and Al/ZnO/CCMO samples, respectively. The thermal emittance reduced by around 25 % with the use of ZnO nanorods on the Al substrates in the wavelength range of 2.5 μm–25 μm. The photocatalytic effect of this spinel compound was also investigated. The degradation spectra of organic methylene blue (MB) solution within 120 min were examined with UV–Vis spectroscopy, and the degradation efficiency increased by 23 % in the presence of ZnO nanorods. The obtained results showed that ZnO nanorod structures significantly changed both the solar and photocatalytic properties of the CCMO compound.

Pengaruh Variasi Monoethanolamine dan Jumlah Pelapisan terhadap Band Gap Lapis Tipis CuSnO3

This study investigated a thin layer of CuSnO3 synthesized through sol-gel dip-coating method with variations in the addition of monoethanolamine. The results revealed that the addition of monoethanolamine by 1 ml reduced the band gap value to 2.2 eV, while the thin layer without the addition of monoethanolamine had a band gap value of 3.1 eV. In addition, the variation in the number of coatings also affects the band gap, where a maximum value of 2.1 eV is obtained with 2 times of coating. These results highlight the importance of monoethanolamine addition and coating amount in regulating the optical properties of CuSnO3 thin layers. The large amount of coating causes an increase in the band gap value and the addition of Monoethanolamine affects the CuSnO3 band gap value.

Fabrication and luminescence switching of Pt-loaded macro-porous Y2WO6:Eu3+ phosphor thin films for hydrogen-gas detection

A luminescence-switching phenomenon of Pt/Y2WO6:Eu3+ phosphor thin films was examined under redox conditions using hydrogen gas and air as a reductant and an oxidant, respectively. Macro-porous Y2WO6:Eu3+ thin films were initially synthesized by a Pechini-type sol–gel dip-coating method on silica glass substrates. Attempts were then made to load Pt nanoparticles (NPs) on the surface of the Y2WO6:Eu3+ thin films immersed in aqueous K2PtCl4 solutions through a method of self-regulated reduction of surfactants using a nonionic triblock copolymer (P-123). The amount of P-123, the concentration of the K2PtCl4 solutions, and the immersion duration were set as three parameters influencing the deposition of the Pt NPs. The number and size of the Pt NPs were found to be dependent on all the three parameters and their excessive deposition led to inevitable quenching of the Eu3+ emission from thin films. In contrast, the lightly loaded Pt NPs were effective to induce turn-off luminescence upon exposure of the thin films to hydrogen gas at a low temperature of 150 °C probably through their catalytic action. The recovery of luminescence was also possible simply by treating the reduced thin films at 200 °C in air. Thus the Pt/Y2WO6:Eu3+ phosphor thin films are promising as a facile hydrogen-gas detector.

Enhanced Acetone Gas Sensing Properties of Al-Doped ZnO Thin Films Developed by Sol-Gel Dip Coating Method

The acetone sensing capabilities of pure and Al-doped ZnO thin films developed by the sol-gel dip coating technique were examined inthis study. An investigation was conducted to examine the impact of Al doping concentration on the structural, morphological and sensing characteristics of the films. The results showed that acetone gas detection in ZnO thin films might be enhanced by doping with Al. In particular, when exposed to 10 ppm of acetone at room temperature, the response of 3 at% Al-doped ZnO thin film was the highest, achieving 53% and showed a fast response time of 6 s and a recovery time of 32 s. The researchers conducted additional investigations into the selectivity of acetone in the film when exposed to various interfering gases. The results revealed that acetone exhibited a favourable level of selectivity. The results presented herein demonstrate the effectiveness of sol-gel dip-coated thin films of Al-doped ZnO in the context of acetone gas sensing applications.

Inexpensive production of hydrophobic and corrosion resistant titania-silica composite coatings for deep water sandwich pipe applications

ABSTRACT In this study, a multifunctional coating that may be both hydrophobic and corrosion-protective for aluminium sandwich pipes for deep sea applications is developed using the sol–gel dip-coating method. Tiania/silica composite gels were synthesised via sol–gel synthesis, and coatings were deposited on aluminium sandwich pipe substrates using a lab-manufactured dip-coater. XRD (X-Ray Diffractogram) analysis of the as-deposited coatings on the aluminium sandwich pipe revealed anatase phase of titania and amorphous nature of silica with a broad peak at Bragg angle 25°. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy on the dip coated aluminium substrate revealed Si-O-Ti and Ti-O-Ti stretching vibrations at wavenumbers 906 cm−1 and 768 cm−1, respectively. Wetting investigation on the composite titania-silica coated aluminium substrate utilising the sessile drop technique supported the 123°Contact angle while interacting with a water droplet. Additionally, corrosion resistance examination on the coating was done using sodium chloride solution with salt spray test as per ASTM B117 and indicated no development of white and red rust on the dip coated composite titania-silica aluminium substrate.

Structural, electrical and optical properties of samarium fluoride doped SnO2 transparent conducting oxide thin films for optoelectronic device applications

In this study, p-type transparent tin oxide (SnO2) based semiconductor thin films were deposited onto glass substrates by sol-gel dip-coating method using samarium-trifluoride (SmF3) as acceptor dopant. The films were prepared by co-doping 2 mol.% of SmF3 into SnO2 (SFTO), followed by annealing temperature at 475 °C. XRD analysis results showed that the films exhibited the tetragonal rutile SnO2 phase. The p-type conductance of the SFTO films were confimed by Hall effect and Seebeck coefficient measurements. Resistivity and mobility of the SmF3 doped SnO2 film is 7.83 × 10–3Wcm and 7.57 cm2 V–1 s–1, respectively, which reduce in comparing with those of un-doped SnO2 film. Carrier concentration is large increase from –9.34 ´ 1018 cm–3 for un-doped- to +1.05 × 1020 cm–3 for SmF3 doped-SnO2 film. The p-type SFTO film showed a high transmittance of 74.3% at 550 nm, with band gap energy of 3.63 eV. Furthermore, a transparent p-SnO2:SmF3/n-ZnO:Al (Al doping level of 2 mol.%) heterojunction was fabricated on alkali-free glass substrates. The I-V curve measurement for the p-n heterojunction diode showed a typical rectifying characteristic with a forward turn-on voltage of 1.55 V. With obtained properties, the p-type SFTO film holds great promise for optoelectronic devices applications.

Improving the current density and reducing the recombination rate of dye sensitized solar cells by modifying the band gap of Titania using Novel heterostructures

Here we report the synthesis of thin films of pristine TiO2, 1% Cd-doped TiO2 (Cd–TiO2), TO2/Cd–TiO2, and Cd–TiO2/TiO2 on FTO glass substrates using the sol-gel dip-coating method. XRD shows that all films have an anatase crystal phase. The maximum intensity and large grain size (48.89 nm) in a 1% Cd–TiO2/TiO2 bilayer film have been observed. Detailed optical properties like absorbance, transmittance, band gap energy (Eg), refractive index (n), dielectric constant, and extinction coefficient (k) have been calculated by UV–Vis. Spectroscopy. According to UV–Vis results, all films absorb UV radiation and transmit visible radiation. The film of 1% Cd–TiO2/TiO2 is a good electrode for solar cell applications due to its low Eg (2.9 eV) and strong transmittance in the visible region. The dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) of these films have been prepared with N719 dye. The cell made up of 1% Cd–TiO2/TiO2 photoanode has the maximum power conversion efficiency (2.47%) in comparison with a pure TiO2 photoanode (1.32%) due to an improvement in the transfer of electrons from the LUMO of dye to the conduction band of TiO2.

Antireflection cum photocatalytic with superhydrophilic based durable single layer mesoporous TiO2 - ZrO2 coating surface for efficient solar photovoltaic application

The cover glass of the solar panel benefits greatly from the antireflection cum photocatalytic with durable superhydrophilic (SHF) coating on float glass, which is here referred to as solar cover glass (SCG). In this study, such coatings were coated as a single layer on SCG as a replacement for the glass that covers solar cells, and their performance was compared to that of the bare texture solar cover glass (TSCG) which available in market. Using the sol–gel dip-coating method, coatings were created from stable sol utilizing titanium (IV) isopropoxide (TTIP), zirconium (IV) oxychloride octahydrate (ZOC), and block co-polymer P123 (surfactant), then dried at 80 °C/2 h and heated for at 400 °C/h. The coatings were deposited on glass with dimensions of 150 mm × 150 mm and had a thickness of 186 ± 10 nm. They had a refractive index value of 1.4295±0.002 and water contact angle (WCA) of 5 – 6°. These coatings were found to be homogeneous and had good adhesion and pencil hardness ∼4H. The coatings' hardness and elastic modulus were also measured using the nano-indentation method with an optimum 500 µN stress and were found to be 0.7909 ± 0.05 GPa and 37.59 ± 1 GPa, respectively. The formation of mesoporous coating as observed by ATR FT-IR and the genesis of the Ti-O-Zr network structure was confirmed by TEM, FESEM, AFM and Raman spectroscopy analysis. Coated glass showed an increase of > 3 % in average transmission in the wavelength range of 700 to 1100 nm due to a lower RI value than substrate along with chemical and thermal stability of the coatings. Moreover, upto 5% increase in photocurrent density Jsc (mA/cm2) was found as compared to uncoated glass substrate (SCG). Furthermore, the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye under UV irradiation and analysis using Raman spectroscopy indicated the photocatalytic ability of the coatings. Its triple functional single layer coated float glass (SCG) is therefore anticipated to be helpful and effective as a replacement for TSCG for home to agricultural applications.

Synthesis and characterization of dip-coated ZnO‒CuO composite thin film for room-temperature CO2 gas sensing

In this work, ZnO‒CuO composite thin film is prepared to achieve CO2 gas sensing at room-temperature. To achieve this purpose, a sol-gel dip-coating method was used to prepare the composite ZnO‒CuO thin films on a glass substrate by varying the precursor solution Zn/Cu molar ratio of 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7. The crystal structure of the films was determined by X-ray diffraction, indicating that the films were polycrystalline in nature with the presence of monoclinic CuO and hexagonal wurtzite ZnO phase, which was further confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. The homogeneous and porous surface morphology of the composite films obtained were observed by scanning electron microscopy. Optical properties and band gap measurements were explored by ultra-violet/visible spectroscopy and the direct band gap of synthesized ZnO‒CuO composite film was found to decrease from 1.54 to 1.45 eV, depending on the precursor solution Zn/Cu molar ratio. Various effective parameters on the performance of CO2 gas sensing, including the molar ratio of Zn/Cu, porous surface, water contact angle, film thickness, grain size, optical and electrical properties were investigated. Results demonstrated that the higher molar ratio (0.7) and thicker film (318 ± 5 nm) with the porous surface of ZnO‒CuO composite films exhibited the highest sensing (∼ 48%) response to 10,000 ppm CO2 at room-temperature. The obtained results suggest a direction for room-temperature ZnO–CuO composite-based sensor as efficient, fast as well as sensitive for CO2 detection.

Preparation and Electrochromic Study of Ce3+ Doped TiO2 Thin Films

Ce3+ doped TiO2 thin films were prepared on ITO conductive glass by sol-gel method and dip-coating method using tetrabutyltitanate and glacial acetic acid as raw materials and adding cerium nitrate into cerium. The Ce3+ doped TiO2 powder was characterized by XRD, TG-DTA and SEM. The electrochromic properties of the films were tested by electrochemical workstation. The films were tested by UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Results show that the concentration of doped Ce ions is 2%, and the electrochromic properties of the films are improved greatly. The more the doping is, the more significant the effect on the electrochromic properties of the films is.

Superamphiphobic TiO2 Film by Sol–Gel Dip Coating Method on Commercial Pure Titanium

Superamphiphobic TiO2 Film by Sol–Gel Dip Coating Method on Commercial Pure Titanium

Investigation of UV photosensor properties of Al-doped SnO2 thin films deposited by sol-gel dip-coating method

Transparent conducting aluminum doped tin oxide thin films were prepared by sol-gel dip coating method with different Al concentrations and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), UV–Vis spectrophotometry and photoconductivity study. The variation observed in the properties of the measured films agrees with a difference in the film's thickness, which decreases when Al concentration augments. X-ray diffraction analysis reveals that all films are polycrystalline with tetragonal structure, (110) plane being the strongest diffraction peak. The crystallite size calculated by the Debye Scherrer’s formula decreases from 11.92 to 8.54 nm when Al concentration increases from 0 to 5 wt.%. AFM images showed grains uniformly distributed in the deposited films. An average transmittance greater than 80% was measured for the films and an energy gap value of about 3.9 eV was deduced from the optical analysis. Finally, the photosensitivity properties like current–voltage characteristics, I ON/I OFF ratio, growth and decay time are studied and reported. Also, we have calculated the trap depth energy using the decay portion of the rise and decay curve photocurrent.

Design and Fabrication of Optical Sensors Based on Neodymium (Nd) Doped Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) Layer Prepared by Sol–Gel Dip-Coating Method

A high performance and stable UV photodetector with a bsorbant layer of Neodymium (Nd) doped Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is reported. The Neodymium (Nd) doped Titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer was chractarized with several tools. XRD and FTIR revaled that the crsytal structure of Neodymium (Nd) doped Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has changed compared with that of the undoped anatase Titanium dioxide (TiO2). Furthermore, the ultraviolet-visibleand photoluminescence spectrometers reveal that the measured absorption and emission of the hybrid Nd doped TiO2 layer have significantly enhanced compared with that of the undoped Titanium dioxide (TiO2). In addition. The photodetector based on Neodymium (Nd) doped Titanium dioxide (TiO2) shows a low-level dark current (Idark = 0.13 nA), a high-level light current (Ilight = 15655.6 nA), an ON/OFF ratio (1.2×105), a responsivity (R = 0.32 A/W), and a specific detectivity (D* = 4.2×1012 J). The photoresponsivity (R) of Nd doped TiO2 layer was improved by nearly 3 times in magnitude in comparison with the photoresponsivity of the undoped TiO2 layer PD without the Nd. This result pave the way for utlizing the hybrid Nd doped TiO2 in enhncing performance of optolectronics.

A New Study on the Effect of Pure Anatase TiO2 Film Thickness on Gentian Violet Photodegradation Under Sunlight: Considering the Effect of Hole Scavengers

In this paper, pure anatase TiO2 thin films were grown on glass substrates by using sol-gel dip-coating method. To study the physical, chemical and optical properties of the deposits, TiO2 thin films were synthesized with thickness (241.5, 258.19, 230.33 and 302.35 nm). XRD patterns show that TiO2 films were grown with unique anatase phase (101). The photocatalytic test shows that film (~ 302 nm) gives high photodegradation of gentian violet (GV) under sunlight irradiation due to the low number of defect sites. The increase in film thickness and the decrease of surface roughness and crystal size decrease the number of defect sites in the material which lead to low recombination rate of charge carriers. The use of Ag+ as hole scavenger increases the photocatalytic activity 4.75 times within the first hour. The photocatalysis process showed that Ag+ can be reduced on the surface of photoactivated TiO2 thin films to obtain sun-photodeposited/dip-coated AgO/TiO2 (p-n) heterojunction. HIGHLIGHTS Pure anatase TiO2 thin films were successfullysynthesized via sol-gel dip-coating method High thickness (302 nm) of TiO2 thin film exhibits high photocatalytic activity for photodegradation of GV under sunlight irradiation The presence of Ag+ in wastewater shows high photocatalytic activity of TiO2 films with 4.75 times within the first hour The possibility of sun-photodeposited/dip-coated of (p-n) AgO/TiO2 heterojunction is discussed GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Experimental study and numerical simulation for the development of critical performance parameters of eco-friendly Cu2ZnSnS4-based solar cells

This work aims to study the basic Characteristics of CZTS thin films produced by chemical solution process in addition to a numerical study of the CZTS-based solar cells. In this context, eco-friendly and cost effective thin films of CZTS were coated on glass substrates by sol–gel dip-coating method. This method is used to grow crystalline CZTS thin films without sulfidation processes. The structural and optical properties have been carried out by X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and UV/Visible spectroscopy. The oxidation states of CZTS thin film have been studied by, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy XPS analysis. The performance of CZTS solar cells has been investigated with the simulator SCAPS-1 D. The impact of different parameters like the CZTS absorber layer thickness, the carrier doping density and the operation temperature has been studied to get better understanding of the properties of our cells.