Indiana Soils Research Articles

Liquid limit determination of low to medium plasticity Indiana soils by hard base Casagrande percussion cup vs. BS fall-cone methods

Atterberg limits of soils including the liquid limit are one of the oldest and most traditional tests conducted in geotechnical site investigations. The relationship between the liquid limits determined from the Casagrande percussion cup apparatus and the fall-cone device has been extensively studied. Despite the known convenience of the fall-cone method, it is scarcely employed for geotechnical site investigations in the USA. This paper presents the findings of investigations conducted on 65 soil samples from different parts of the Indiana State in the USA including their liquid limit tests. The results obtained by the Casagrande percussion cup method and the fall-cone method were compared. The comparison explains how the variations in the liquid limit effect the results of the two methods, and a correlation is also offered. Based on the results, a model is also presented for single-point determination of the liquid limit from the two methods. Finally, a modified plasticity chart for soil classification is proposed based on the fall-cone liquid limit and plasticity index results of these soil samples. The paper also includes the statistical analysis of the proposed relationships.

Kinetic analysis of aerobic biotransformation pathways of a perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) precursor in distinctly different soils

With the phaseout of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) production in most countries and its well known recalcitrance, there is a need to quantify the potential release of PFOS from precursors previously or currently being emitted into the environment. Aerobic biodegradation of N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol (EtFOSE) was monitored in two soils from Indiana, USA: an acidic forest silt loam (FRST-48, pH = 5.5) and a high pH agricultural loam (PSF-49, pH = 7.8) with similar organic carbon contents (2.4 and 2.6%) for 210 d and 180 d, respectively. At designated times, triplicate samples were sacrificed for which headspace samples were taken followed by three sequential extractions. Extracts were analyzed using HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry. Measured profiles of EtFOSE degradation and generation/degradation of subsequent metabolites were fitted to the Indiana soils data as well as to a previously published data set for a Canadian soil using an R-based model (KinGUII) to explore pathways and estimate half-lives (t1/2) for EtFOSE and metabolites. EtFOSE degradation ranged from a few days to up to a month. PFOS yields ranged form 1.06–5.49 mol% with the alkaline soils being four to five times higher than the acidic soil. In addition, a direct pathway to PFOS had to be invoked to describe the early generation of PFOS in the Canadian soil. Of all metabolites, the sulfonamidoacetic acids were the most persistent (t1/2 ≥ 3 months) in all soils. We hypothesized that while pH-pKa dependent speciation may have impacted rates, differences in microbial communities between the 3 soils arising from varied soil properties including pH, nutrient levels, soil management, and climatic regions are likely the major factors affecting pathways, rates, and PFOS yields.

Modeling Water Quality Impacts of Cellulosic Biofuel Production from Corn Silage

The growing interest in the use of alternative biomass products for fuel production requires a thorough understanding of the environmental impacts associated with the production of these bioenergy crops. Corn silage is a potential bioenergy feedstock; however, water quality implications for its utilization as a biofeedstock are not understood. The objective of this work was to evaluate water quality impacts associated with corn silage production. The GLEAMS-NAPRA model was used to quantify runoff, percolation, erosion, nitrate-nitrogen, total phosphorus, and pesticide losses attributed to the production of corn silage with and without winter cover crops for two tillage options (conventional tillage and no till) on three Indiana soils. Results revealed that corn silage would generate greater annual surface runoff (1 to 6 mm) and percolation (1 to 20 mm) compared with corn grain and grain plus stover cropping systems. Silage/winter cereal rye cover crop reduced annual surface runoff and percolation and was strongly influenced by increases in evapotranspiration, when compared with continuous silage production. Silage managed with winter cereal rye cover crop influenced water quality by reducing annual nitrate losses with runoff from a low of 14 % to a high of 27 %, with relatively no effect because of tillage management. No-till practice on silage system produced significantly greater phosphorus losses (7.46 to 18.07 kg/ha) in comparison to silage/cereal rye, corn grain, and grain plus stover harvest (p < 0.05). For every 1,000 l of ethanol produced from corn silage, erosion losses ranged from 0.07 to 0.95 t/ha for conventional tillage practices and from 0.06 to 0.83 t/ha for no-till practices. The feasibility of cropping systems such as corn silage/cereal rye could contribute to large-scale biomass production but should be further investigated.

The Pilot Study of Integrating Spatial Educational Experiences (Isee) in an Undergraduate Crop Production Course

Recent National Research Council reports make compelling arguments for the need to incorporate spatial abilities and use spatial technologies throughout our educational system. We conducted a pilot study to determine the pedagogical effectiveness of teaching with geographic information systems (GIS) by using a web‐based GIS tool of Indiana soils. The study was conducted in an undergraduate crop production class over three semesters. We used a pre‐test, treatment, post‐test design in which students (n = 96) were asked a series of questions designed to test their abilities to understand and interpret spatial concepts. During the spring and fall 2009 semesters, traditional assessments with true/false and multiple choice questions were used. After the treatment was administered, the total average score of 68% for the pre‐test increased to 73% for the post‐test with a standard deviation of 13%. However, we concluded that these initial assessments focused on the lower levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. Thus, in the spring 2010 semester we switched to using open concept maps to target higher levels in Bloom's Taxonomy. Using a scoring scheme based on a weighted point system, scores increased from the pre‐concept maps to the post‐concept maps. Paired t‐tests showed that the positive changes that occurred with the treatment were significant (P &lt; 0.01). Overall, a 22% increase in scores for pre‐concept map to post‐concept map reflected a slight increase in instructional learning. The web‐based GIS program received favorable comments from students and proved to be instrumental in providing a rich set of materials that facilitated learner‐centered instruction.

Impacts of 2008 flooding on agricultural lands in Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana

The 2008 spring rains in Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana delayed planting, drowned corn and soybean plants, and resulted in significant replanting. From May 30, 2008, to June 12, 2008, the previously saturated soils could not retain any more rainfall, and the wetlands, potholes, and depressions in the upland landscape filled with water (figure 1) and then began to runoff through waterways and into small streams (figure 2). As much as 30% of the upland soils in south central Illinois, northern Missouri, and southern Indiana were affected by ponding. Approximately one-third of that ponded acreage was not replanted in 2008. As overland flow started to occur, so did sheet, rill, and gully erosion. Where significant topsoil loss occurs, it can eventually result in the erosion phase change of the soil. Any soil erosion phase change from slightly to moderately or severely eroded can reduce the crop yield potential from 0.3 to 1 Mg ha−1 (5 to 15 bu ac−1), depending on whether the soils have favorable or unfavorable sub-soils for rooting. One year's erosion events do not change the erosion phase of the soil unless gullying occurs. However, the 2008 soil loss, when added to the soil loss from erosion in…

Predicting Soil Organic Carbon Stock Using Profile Depth Distribution Functions and Ordinary Kriging

The objective of this study was to predict and map SOC stocks at different depth intervals within the upper 1‐m depth using profile depth distribution functions and ordinary kriging. These approaches were tested for the state of Indiana as a case study. A total of 464 pedons representing 204 soil series was obtained from the National Soil Survey Center database. Another 48 soil profile samples were collected to better represent the heterogeneity of the environmental variables. Two methods were used to model the depth distribution of the SOC stocks using negative exponential profile depth functions. In Procedure A, the functions to describe the depth distribution of volumetric C content for each soil profile were fitted using nonlinear least squares. In Procedure B, the exponential functions were fitted to describe the depth distribution of the cumulative SOC stocks. The parameters of the functions were interpolated for the entire study area using ordinary kriging on 81% of the data points (n = 414). The integral of the exponential function up to the desired depth was used to predict SOC stocks within the 0‐ to 1‐, 0‐ to 0.5‐, and 0.5‐ to 1‐m depth intervals. These estimates were validated using the remaining 19% (n = 98) of the data. Procedure B showed a higher prediction accuracy for all depths, with higher r and lower RMSE values. The highest prediction accuracy (r = 0.75, RMSE = 2.89 kg m−2) was obtained for SOC stocks in the 0‐ to 0.5‐m depth interval. Using Procedure B, SOC stocks within the top 1 m of Indiana soils were estimated to be 0.90 Pg C.

Long-Term Performance of Chemically Modified Subgrade Soils in Indiana

Chemical modification of soils with lime in Indiana is widely used to improve the workability and compactability of weak subgrade soils. Although the modification process is primarily aimed at construction expediency, additional effects such as long-term improvement of stiffness or strength by pozzolanic and carbonation cementation processes of the treated soils have been expected but have not been quantified. Because of a lack of confidence in the long-term performance of the chemically modified soils, their enhanced stiffness has not been taken into account in pavement design, leading to a conservative design of the asphalt or concrete pavement layers. Six roads that have been in service for 5 to 11 years were selected to conduct field tests. The selection was performed considering (a) location of road project in Indiana, (b) class of road, (c) year when chemical treatment was done, (d) type of chemical modifier used, (e) type of pavement, (f) availability of geotechnical information for postconstruction evaluation, and (g) traffic and safety control for field testing. The results from the field tests show that the long-term stiffness or strength of subgrades that were chemically treated 5 to 11 years ago is 4 to 11 times higher than that of natural sub-grades. This finding suggests that the enhanced stiffness of the chemically modified subgrade could be accounted for in pavement design, which would lead to a reduction of the thickness of asphalt or concrete pavement layers.

Development and Evaluation of Iron‐Coated Tubes that Indicate Reduction in Soils

Soil drainage conditions are important to land use decisions. Traditionally, anaerobic conditions induced by poor drainage have been evaluated by observing soil color related to Fe and Mn oxides, using α, α‐dipyridyl dye, measuring dissolved O2, and measuring EH We believe that there is further need for a device that is scientifically sound and easy to use. Therefore, our goals were to develop and test a device that mimics natural soil processes, visually indicates soil reduction, and is robust. Our concept was to coat a rod or tube with a colored soil mineral that dissolves on reduction, insert the device into a soil, remove it after a few weeks or longer, and observe if some of the coating had been lost. If the coating was not dissolved, no reduction occurred, but if it was dissolved, reducing conditions must have prevailed. After trying several kinds of coatings and tubes, we chose ferrihydrite (FH) coating on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe. We call the device an Indicator of Reduction in Soils (IRIS). As the study progressed we added semi‐quantitative interpretations by measuring depleted areas using a digital camera and image analysis. We tested IRIS tubes in the lab and in soils in Indiana, Minnesota, and North Dakota, and concluded they performed as expected. Reduction rates increased between February and April and were related to increasing soil temperature, turnover (flux) of soil OC, and content (inventory) of OC. Reduction rates decreased after April, presumably because the nutrient supply for microbes decreased.

Modeling competitive cation exchange of aromatic amines in water-saturated soils.

Competitive association to several components of soil through ion exchange processes influences the fate of organic cations in the environment. To examine these processes, the distributions of aniline and 1-aminonaphthalene between aqueous 5 mM CaCl2 solutions and three different Indiana soils were evaluated. Solute ratios (Sr) of aniline to 1-aminonaphthalene of 0.4-4.7 were employed, and the soil solutions ranged in pH from 2.7 to 7.5, with all measurements made 24 h after the introduction of the chemicals to the soils. Two previously proposed equilibrium models--the two-site (TS) and distributed parameter (DP) models--were modified to predict competition. These models assume instantaneous equilibrium of the following reversible processes: (i) acid dissociation of the protonated organic base (BHaq+) in the aqueous phase; (ii) ion exchange on the soil between the protonated organic base and inorganic divalent cations (Daq2+ = Caaq2+ + Mgaq2+); and (iii) partitioning of the nonionic species of aniline (Baq) to soil organic carbon. The TS model is a general mass action model that does not take into consideration cation exchange site heterogeneity, whereas the DP model considers association constants to these sites to be distributed in a log-normal fashion. To describe competition for cation exchange sites within the DP model, it was necessary to add a correlation coefficient (rho) that relates the ion-exchange association constant (KBH) probability density distribution functions of the two compounds. The value of rho is characteristic of each soil. Results indicate that competition has a greater effect at low pH values, where ion exchange is the predominant process. For all cases, these models capture the general trends in the soil-water distribution data of both amines. The DP model also captures the nonlinearity of the 1-aminonaphthalene isotherms at low pH while at the same time capturing the nearly linear isotherms of aniline as a competing organic base.

Modeling Short-Term Soil−Water Distribution of Aromatic Amines

The applicability of a distributed parameter model for describing the distribution of aniline and α-naphthylamine between soil and aqueous phases at short contact times was assessed. Mass action equations considered in the distributed parameter model were (a) acid dissociation of the protonated organic amine (BH+); (b) sorption of the neutral species (B) to soil organic carbon through the partition coefficient Koc; and (c) ion exchange of the protonated organic amine and inorganic divalent cations (Ca2+ + Mg2+ = D2+). The last reaction was expressed mathematically as separated association reactions for each cation to unoccupied cation exchange sites, with constants KBH and KD. A Gaussian distribution on log KBH values with mode μ and standard deviation σ was employed. The overall model was expressed as a system of two nonlinear equations with two unknown values (BH+ and D2+). The model was evaluated with aniline and α-naphthylamine isotherms measured on three Indiana soils ranging in pH (4.5−7.0) and adde...

Effect of Paraplowing on Crop Yields with No-Till Planting

No-till acreage has expanded rapidly in the past 5 yr in the U.S. Corn Belt. Yield potential often improves with no-till planting on well drained and low organic matter (OM) soils, but no-till yields are sometimes at a disadvantage on dark, poorly drained soils. Restricted plant rooting due to increased soil density is sometimes reported with no-till planting. Deep tillage with a Paraplow 1 (Tye Co., PO Box 218, Lockney, TX 79241), leaving most surface residue undisturbed, was evaluated on three soils in Indiana for continuous corn (Zea mays L.). Annual paraplowing and biennial paraplowing were used with no-till and moldboard plow systems. On dark, poorly drained silty clay loam, annual paraplowing improved stand, growth, and yield, compared with traditional no-till planting. On a silt loam soil with 2% OM, response to paraplowing for no-till was variable and on a 1% OM soil, paraplowing did not improve no-till yield. Carryover effect from biennial paraplowing for no-till planting was not consistent, even on silty clay loam. Paraplowing did not improve plowed yields on any of the three soils. Paratilling was also used on four rows of each 12-row plot in the 15th year of a long-term tillage study on silty clay loam soiL Plow, chisel, ridge, and no-till systems were used in continuous corn, corn after soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], soybean after corn, and continuous soybean. In no-till continuous corn, there was a positive response to paratilling, but yield for no-till plus paratilling was significantly lower than plowed yield. With conditions similar to conditions in these studies, deep soil loosening is likely to improve no-till continuous corn yield on dark poorly drained soil, but is not likely to improve yield on well drained or low OM soils where traditional no-till is well adapted.

Sodium Provision and Wild Cottontail Rabbits: Morphological Change in Adrenal Glands

A direct relationship exists between sodium (Na) nutrition and morphology of the mammalian adrenal cortex, but little research on the relationship between soil Na levels and herbivore populations exists. Consequently, we assessed the effect of Na on wild cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) inhabiting Na poor soils in southcentral Indiana by characterizing their adrenal mass and histology prior to, and following, provision of supplemental Na. Data and tissues were collected at annual (1985-87) hunter check stations and during the 1987 breeding season at the Atterbury Fish and Wildlife Area

Estimation of Hydraulic Conductivity from Effective Porosity Data for Some Indiana Soils

AbstractHydraulic‐conductivity data are needed to predict how soils will respond to various uses. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), however, has been determined for only a few soils. Ahuja et al. proposed a model by which Ks can be estimated from effective porosity (φ3), the difference between total porosity and the volumetric soil water content at 33 kPa of suction. If this relationship were known, Ks could be predicted for many more soils using available water‐retention information. Previously, Ks had been determined in saturated soil horizons by the piezometer method for a set of soils in Indiana. These data were summarized by soil classes, called lithomorphic classes, based on origin of parent material, kind of soil horizon, and soil texture. More recently, bulk‐density and water‐retention measurements were summarized using similar classes. In this study, Ks is related to φe for some Alfisols and Mollisols of Indiana. The relationship is Ks = 5.01 × 10−3 × φ3.21e, where Ks is in m/s and φe is in m3/m3. This compares favorably with the relationships found by Ahuja et al.

New Basis for Earthwork Specification for Clay Soil

This paper presents the results of a study to improve the prediction of the in‐service behavior of several field‐compacted Indiana soils. The data base was created from testing of field‐compacted samples taken from test embankments and ongoing construction. The most important characteristic of the achievement with assurance of the best possible in‐service behavior parameters is the range of water content allowed in the lift at time of compaction. Selected charts and diagrams prepared from the data base are presented, as are the details of the created procedures. Examples are shown for the use of the procedures in: (1) Design engineering, where one creates the specification for compaction to ensure the presence of specific property parameters magnitudes; and (2) quality assurance, where one does not know the borrow area in advance of construction, but where one can establish the magnitudes of parameters of the compacted product from inspection testing results. It is believed that if implemented with a suff...

Soil Strength Properties Under Four Tillage Systems at Three Long‐Term Study Sites in Indiana

AbstractThere is increasing concern that long‐term continuous conservation tillage may cause increased surface soil strength and compaction detrimental to root growth and crop yield. The objective of this study was to characterize distribution of cone index (CI) and vane shear strength (VS) values at three row positions: in row (R), non‐wheeltrack interrow (NW), and wheeltrack interrow (WT), under four tillage systems: conventional moldboard plow (PL), chisel plow (CH), ridge‐till‐plant (RT), and no‐till (NT), on three long‐term tillage studies on silty soils in Indiana. The Mollisol and Alfisols studied had been under the continuous tillage treatments for 13, 8, and 4 yr, respectively. Maximum cone index (CImax) averaged over three row positions was in the order RT &gt; CH, NT &gt; PL. As less tillage was performed, the zone of maximum strength was closer to the soil surface. Depth of CImax was in the order PL &gt; CH &gt; NT, RT. On the two Alfisols, soil strength in the non‐trafficked positions (NW and R) tended to be lower in no‐till than in the other tillage treatments, especially in the lower portion (below 15 cm) of the formerly tilled zone. High‐strength layers were recorded at 23 to 40 cm and 15 to 22 cm on the PL and CH treatments, respectively. Wheeltrack compaction was more severe under RT and NT than on PL and CH. Vane shear data generally verified the tillage and row position effects found with the cone penetrometer.

Color index values to represent wetness and aeration in some Indiana soils

The objective of this study was to devise a numerical index of saturation/aeration based on soil morphology, compare it with saturation depth and content of dissolved oxygen in the soil water, and relate it to definitions of soil classes. We periodically measured depth to the water table and soil-water oxygen content for ten soils in north-central Indiana. The soils were formed from loess over compact loam glacial till in a dissected till plain. They included Aquolls in swales, Aqualfs on swells, and Udalfs on hillslope shoulders and backslopes along drainage-ways cutting back into the till plain. All soils were at least periodically saturated, but not all soils had gray (< 2 chroma) colors. Those that lacked gray colors had some horizons with mottles or argillans with 3 or 4 chroma. Several color indexes were defined. One was based on hue and chroma and one on chroma only. They were applied to the upper 0.3 m of the B horizon and to a uniform 0.3–0.6 m depth zone. They were all highly correlated with the duration of saturation, especially when the soil temperature was > 5°C. They were also correlated with the O 2 levels of ground water, especially the duration when O 2 content of soil water was < 5 mg kg −1. The saturation duration and the O 2 content of soil water were also correlated with each other. Soils that are periodically saturated but not reduced should be recognized more specifically in Soil Taxonomy.

Ionic equilibria, selectivity and diffusion of cations in soil as influenced by anion additions

Abstract An experiment was carried under controlled conditions to investigate the influence of the anions, H2PO4 ‐. and Cl on the ionic equilibria, selectivity and effective diffusion of Rb, K, Na, Ca, Mg in two Indiana soils. Additon of anions to the soils increased the concentration of cations in soil solution. In both the soils receiving H2PO4 ‐, lower cation concentrations were found in the soil solution than in those receiving Cl‐ . Additon of H2PO4 ‐and Cl‐ reduced the ion selectivity coefficient, k, for various homovalent (Rb/K, Rb/Na, K/Na, Ca/Mg) and mono‐divalent ion pairs (Rb/Ca, Rb/Mg, K/Ca, K/Mg). In Zanesville soil treatments receiving H2PO4 ‐ had lower k values for mono‐divalent cations than treatments receiving Cl‐. However, no such conclusions could be drawn for Raub soil. Soils treated with H2PO4 ‐ had higher k values for homovalent cations than Cl‐ treated soils. The differences in the selectivity of adsorption in these two soils might be attributable to the differences in the type and ...

Ionic equilibria, selectivity and diffusion of cations in soils as influenced by calcium and magnesium

Abstract Four Indiana soils were used to study the changes in ionic equilibria, selectivity and effective diffusion coefficient of cations at five levels of Ca and Mg. In all the soils, adsorption isotherms for Ca and Mg differred Indicating variation in the nature of exchanger involved. Addition of Ca and Mg reduced the fractional saturation of monovalent cations in solution and exchange phase. However, no such conclusions could be drawn for divalent cations. In all the soils, Rb is preferentially adsorbed over K and Na. In all the soils, increasing levels of Ca and Mg reduced the magnitude of the selectivity coefficient for homovalent ion pairs (Rb/Na, K/Na) and mono‐divalent ion pairs (Rb/Ca, Rb/Mg, K/Ca, K/Mg, Na/Ca, Na/Mg). These changes in selectivity coefficient are attributed to fractional saturation changes on the exchanger and differences in the free energy of hydration of the two counter ions involved. In all the four soils addition of Ca ang Mg increased the effective diffusion coefficient of ...

Effective diffusion coefficient of cations as influenced by physical and chemical properties of selected Indiana soils

Abstract Ion diffusion through the soil matrix is dependent upon both the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Cation (K, Na, Ca and Mg) diffusion coefficients De, were determined for seven Indiana soils by using the ion diffuison flux to a hydrogen resin paper technique. Volumetric moisture, clay content exchange and solution phase ionic concentrations, buffer capacity and organic C content were variously related to the determined De values. The larger the diffusion coefficient of K, Ca, and Mg, the lower the clay content, and exchange capacity of soils, and the higher the concentration of these cations in the solution phase. From the present study, it was concluded that the De of these cations was affected by one or more soil physical and chemical property which must be considered if De is to be used to estimate supply rate of these ions to growing roots in soil systems.

Evaluation and Comparison of Two Methods for Characterization of Sediment Size Distribution

THE effect of storage time on aggregate size analysis and two methods of analysis (pipette and decantation) to separate naturally eroded sediment into 11 size fractions ranging from < 2 /^m to 35 fim are described. Five sets of 49 samples each from Indiana soils were used to test if storage times of 0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 30 or 180 days before particle size separation was performed caused significant differences in the measured particle size distribution for either of the two methods. For samples between 35 and 500 /nm (separated by wet sieving in the laboratory) effects of storage time on the particle size distribution were significant after 30 days. For the size fractions smaller than 35 jim separated by pipette storage time was significant after 30 days. Storage time was significant after 180 days only in 3 of 20 storage time-size fraction combinations for the decantation method. Differences in the percent of sediment found in each size class between the two methods were highly significant for each size fraction <35 \JLVC\ for all five soils. Differences of 20 mm in the effective depth range actually sampled by the pipette and differences from 8 to 18 s between times required to fill the 10 mL pipette did not significantly affect particle size. Increasing pipette withdrawal depth from 50 to either 100 or 150 mm essentially doubled the dry weight of soil obtained in a pipette for the 20 to 35 \xm fraction. Results using the same withdrawal depths for <2, 2 to 10, and 10 to 20 \JL fractions showed only minor differences between depths.