Soil Water Availability Research Articles

Vegetative and reproductive phenology in seasonal climate vegetation: phenological complementarity between woody and herbaceous plants in the Brazilian Chaco

Plant growth and reproduction patterns may be closely associated with environmental seasonality, but the high diversity of plant strategies has revealed complex phenological patterns. Here, we evaluate the occurrence, duration, and seasonality of vegetative and reproductive phenophases of the Brazilian Chaco vegetation. In addition, we summarize the results of a systematic literature review about the phenology of herbaceous and woody plants in different types of seasonal vegetation in the South American Dry Diagonal. Woody plants have a high intense leaf fall and low leaf flush during the dry season in the Brazilian Chaco, whereas in herbaceous plants these phenophases have more fluctuations. In both types, flowering and fruiting are continuous, not uniform, and mainly concentrate during the rainy season. However, woody species present two intensity peaks independent of rainfall, mean temperature, photoperiod, or soil water availability. In turn, in herbaceous species, flowering and fruiting responded to local climatic variables and photoperiod, presenting a peak of intensity during the rainy season. The rainy season plays an important role in plant growth and reproduction in seasonal climates around the world, mainly due to the energetic demand for plants. Like other vegetation types with seasonal climates, particularly in the South American Dry Diagonal, the Brazilian Chaco presents a wide range of phenological patterns, with generally different patterns between woody and herbaceous species. Community-level phenological studies conducted in areas with a seasonal climate have globally focused only on reproduction in relation to vegetative phenology, mostly ignoring herbaceous flora. Here, we emphasize that the phenological complementarity between the woody and herbaceous components is of great importance in maintaining the availability of resources.

Análise espacial da produtividade da cenoura irrigada em função das propriedades físicas do solo

ABSTRACT Understanding soil, plant attributes, and carrot crop dynamics is vital for optimizing site-specific management practices and enhancing crop yield and soil quality. This study aimed to ascertain the dependence and spatial variability between irrigated carrot yield and soil physical attributes in a clayey Oxisol. The research took place during the 2021 growing season in a commercial carrot production area in Campos Altos, MG, Brazil. One hundred sampling points were established within the irrigated area, distributed across a square expanse of 40,000 m², positioned at the centers of 20 × 20 m grids. The study revealed high yield in the irrigated carrot crop (99.74 t ha-1) with moderate variability. Soil attributes displayed a range of heterogeneity, ranging from low to extremely high, contingent on the variable assessed, as determined by the coefficient of variation. Among the variables exhibiting spatial dependence, particle density exhibited a minimum range of 40 m, which is recommended for further studies on irrigated carrot cultivation in a clayey Oxisol. Total soil water availability demonstrated a positive spatial correlation and proved to be the recommended variable for estimating the spatial variability of carrot crop yield.

Identifying Climatic Change Adaptations of Crops in Orinoco Basin Oxisols Through Study of Soil Water Availability

Identifying Climatic Change Adaptations of Crops in Orinoco Basin Oxisols Through Study of Soil Water Availability

Effects of Nitrate Assimilation in Leaves and Roots on Biomass Allocation and Drought Stress Responses in Poplar Seedlings

Knowledge of tree biomass allocation is fundamental for estimating forest acclimation and carbon stock for global changes in the future. Optimal partitioning theory (OPT) and allometric partitioning theory (APT) are two major patterns of biomass allocation, and occurrences have been tested on taxonomical, ontogenetic, geographic and environmental scales, showing conflicting results and unclear ecophysiological mechanisms. Here, we examine the biomass allocation patterns of two young poplar (Populus) clones varying greatly in drought resistance under different soil water and nitrogen availabilities and the major physiological processes involved in biomass partitioning. We found that Biyu, a drought-sensitive hybrid poplar clone, had significant relations among biomass of leaf, stem and root, showing allometric partitioning. Xiaoye, a drought-tolerant poplar clone native to semi-arid areas, on the contrary, showed tightly regulated biomass allocation following optimal partitioning theory. Biyu had higher nitrate reductase activity in the fine roots, while Xiaoye had higher nitrate reductase activity in the leaves. Biochemical analyses and measurements of fluorescence and gas exchange showed that Xiaoye maintained more stable chloroplast membranes and photosystem electron flow, showing higher water use efficiency and a higher resistance to drought. A nitrogen addition could improve leaf photosynthesis and growth both in Biyu and Xiaoye seedlings under drought conditions. We concluded that the two poplar clones showed different biomass allocation patterns and suggest that the site of nitrate assimilation may play a role in biomass partitioning under varying water and nitrogen availabilities.

Prediction of edapho-climatic parameters in the incidence of Campylobacter spp. in northwestern Mexico.

Campylobacter spp. is one of the main causes of enteric zoonotic infections worldwide. In Mexico, although a commonly detected pathogen in both children and adults, there is limited surveillance and few studies. The northern part of Mexico stands out for an unnoticed outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni due to contaminated drinking water, which caused an abrupt increase in Guillain-Barré syndrome in the local population. Although it is suggested that its distribution in nature is related to edaphic and climatic factors, this relationship is scarcely known. To understand abiotic factors driving the occurrence and prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in three municipalities from three states in northwestern Mexico (Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California), we used the kriging interpolation method of unsampled areas and the correspondence analysis of 23 environmental variables. Of the three municipalities evaluated, Janos in Chihuahua (CHIH), has the highest number of geographic areas classified as high and medium incidence, followed by Santa Cruz, Sonora (SON) and Mexicali, Baja California (BC). Mexicali (BC) edaphic variables limit the potential incidence of the bacterium, mainly due to the lack of soil moisture and its difficulty of surviving on dry surfaces, related to electrical conductivity and salinity. Janos (CHIH) presents limitations in terms of soil water availability, although its presence is more heterogeneous (2 to 8 months). Santa Cruz (SON) has the highest soil water availability (4 to 5 months), and presents pH, texture and low percentage of salinity conditions for the potential incidence of Campylobacter spp. Mexicali (BC) reports a temperature in the warmest month of up to 43°C, which could influence the presence of thermophilic species. The annual precipitation is another limiting factor for the potential incidence of Campylobacter spp. since it does not exceed 509.5 mm, contributing to Janos (CHIH) as the municipality with the highest potential incidence of this bacterium.

Replacing nitrogen in mineral fertilizers with nitrogen in maize straw increases soil water-holding capacity

Soil water-holding capacity decreases due to long-term mineral fertilizer application. The objective of this study was to determine how replacing mineral fertilizer with maize straw affected the soil water retention curve, soil water content, soil water availability, and soil equivalent pore size. Replacement treatments in which 25% (S25), 50% (S50), 75% (S75), and 100% (S100) of 225 kg ha−1 nitrogen from mineral fertilizer (CK) was replaced with equivalent nitrogen from maize straw were conducted for five years in the Loess Plateau of China. The Gardner model was used to fit the soil water retention curve and calculate the soil water constant and equivalent pore size distribution. The results indicated that the Gardner model fitted well. Replacing nitrogen from mineral fertilizer with nitrogen from straw increased soil specific water capacity, soil readily available water, soil delayed available water, soil available water, soil capillary porosity, and soil available water porosity over time. S25 increased field capacity and wilting point from the fourth fertilization year. S50 enhanced soil readily available water, soil delayed available water, soil available water, and soil available water porosity from the fifth fertilization year, whereas S25 and S75 increased these from the third fertilization year or earlier. Soil specific water capacity, soil readily available water, soil delayed available water, soil available water, soil capillary porosity, and soil available water porosity could better reflect soil water-holding capacity and soil water supply capacity compared with field capacity and wilting point.

Comparison of Juvenile Development of Maize and Sorghum in Six Temperate Soil Types under Extreme Water Regimes

Climate change requires the introduction of alternative crops in certain temperate areas due to the warmer and drier growing seasons. Maize, one of the most important crops, is projected to become less tolerant of a drier climate. Therefore, it is necessary to find an alternative species that is less susceptible to environmental stressors. This study compared the germination, growth vigour, and stress tolerance of maize and sorghum grow in six types of soil under three water regimes. The results indicate that sorghum germination is faster and more uniform. The most significant differences in germination rates were found in chernozem (88.9% and 72.2% for sorghum and maize, respectively) and saline solonetz (74.4% and 63.3% for sorghum and maize, respectively). Maize exhibited higher growth vigour only in three cases, i.e., under solonetz–flooding, shifting sand–drought, and brown forest floor–flooding conditions. An ANOVA showed a significant difference between sorghum and maize stress conditions due to soil conditions and water availability (p < 0.0001). Sorghum can be a suitable alternative to maize, but only in areas with hot, dry periods and in areas where the soil is not too prone to waterlogging, regardless of its quality.

Deep Soil Water Availability Regulates the Transpiration of Afforested Apple Trees (Malus pumila Mill.) in a Sub-Humid Loess Region

Deep Soil Water Availability Regulates the Transpiration of Afforested Apple Trees (Malus pumila Mill.) in a Sub-Humid Loess Region

High sensitivity of hop plants (Humulus lupulus L.) to limited soil water availability: the role of stomata regulation and xylem vulnerability to embolism

Drought poses a serious threat to the productivity of hop, an important perennial crop. However, the precise physiological mechanisms that make it highly susceptible to drought are not yet fully understood. In this study, we investigated stomatal regulation and xylem vulnerability to embolism, which are important traits closely associated with plant drought resistance. In a glasshouse cultivation experiment, we monitored changes in leaf water potential, stem elongation rates, and leaf gas exchange, including net photosynthetic rates, stomatal conductance, and intrinsic water use efficiency, on relatively young hop plants (traditional Saaz - Osvald’s clone 31) exposed to declining soil water availability. The transpiration rate and stem elongation of plants decreased significantly with a small decline in substrate water potential (ΨSUB), indicating a highly sensitive stomata response during early phases of soil dehydration. The stem elongation was completely halted, and the transpiration rate dropped to less than 50% of its maximum at ΨSUB levels below − 0.8 MPa. In well-watered hop plants, xylem in stems operates near the initial point of embolization and is highly vulnerable to embolism, with a water potential corresponding to a 50% loss of xylem conductivity at -1.6 MPa. The sensitive stomatal response to declining ΨSUB likely helps to mitigate the risk of hydraulic failure, albeit at the cost of impaired growth. Scheduled irrigation, particularly during the sensitive stem elongation stage, may be a promising approach to mitigate the detrimental effects of reduced soil water availability on hop growth and yield while also conserving water resources.

Contribution of soil sustainable management to improve coffee nutrition and mitigate water scarcity

The soil can be managed to improve plant nutrition and resilience under water scarcity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the contribution of soil conditioners, controlled-release fertilizers, and water availability levels to mitigate water scarcity and improve the nutrition of coffee plants. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse under a randomized block design with four replicates in a factorial scheme (2 irrigation levels × 2 fertilizer types × 5 soil conditioners) of analysis of variance. The factors under study were two irrigation levels (low—40% of water holding capacity, and high—80% of water holding capacity), fertilizer type (conventional and controlled-release), and soil conditioners (coffee husk, gypsum, water-retaining polymer, organic compost, and control without soil conditioner), The characteristics assessed were soil fertility, soil moisture, and nutrient foliar contents. Multivariate analytical methods were used to interpret the results. Soil moisture, chemical attributes, and leaf nutrient contents were analyzed. There was a similarity in the clusters formed by the controlled-release fertilizer treatments, which contribute to plant nutrition. Even under water restriction, the treatments with coffee husk and organic compost were clustered along with soil moisture, favoring the absorption of nutrients. Soil cover with organic compounds improved soil moisture, even under low water availability, which favored plant fertility and nutrition.

Radiation, Air Temperature, and Soil Water Availability Drive Tree Water Deficit Across Temporal Scales in Canada's Western Boreal Forest

AbstractChanges are projected for the boreal biome with complex and variable effects on forest vegetation including drought‐induced tree mortality and forest loss. With soil and atmospheric conditions governing drought intensity, specific drivers of trees water stress can be difficult to disentangle across temporal scales. We used wavelet analysis and causality detection to identify potential environmental controls (evapotranspiration, soil moisture, rainfall, vapor pressure deficit, air temperature and photosynthetically active radiation) on daily tree water deficit and on longer periods of tree dehydration in black spruce and tamarack. Daily tree water deficit was controlled by photosynthetically active radiation, vapor pressure deficit, and air temperature, causing greater stand evapotranspiration. Prolonged periods of tree water deficit (multi‐day) were regulated by photosynthetically active radiation and soil moisture. We provide empirical evidence that continued warming and drying will cause short‐term increases in black spruce and tamarack transpiration, but greater drought stress with reduced soil water availability.

Estimating deep soil water depletion and availability under planted forest on the Loess Plateau, China

Deep soil water (DSW) plays a pivotal role in tree growth, susceptibility to drought-induced mortality, and belowground carbon and nutrient cycling. Assessing DSW depletion is essential for evaluating the resilience and sustainability of planted forests. But, due to the poor accessibility of deep soil layers, little is known about large scale DSW depletion. In this study, we leverage the concept that “plants are reliable indicators of deep soil water” to estimate DSW depletion in planted forests within the arid and semi-arid regions of the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP). Our approach involves establishing a model that correlates forest age with DSW depletion. We then employ this model to estimate DSW depletion across the region, utilizing readily available data on the distribution of forest age and utilize the boundary models to consider the variability of DSW depletion estimated with forest age. Our results indicate that the model effectively estimates DSW depletion in planted forests, demonstrating a strong fit with an R2 of 0.71 and a low root mean square error (RMSE) of 332 mm. Notably, a substantial portion of the planted forest areas on the CLP has experienced DSW depletion from 800 mm to 1600 mm, and totaling 2.41 × 1010 m3 DSW depletion from 1995 to 2020 based on the general model. However, the available DSW in the existing planted forests on the CLP is estimated at only 1.73 × 1010 m3 by 2038. This suggests that there is potential risks and unsustainability for further afforestation efforts and carbon sequestration on the CLP under the current continuous afforestation measures. Our study holds significant implications for sustainable regional ecological management and quantifying water resources for carbon trading through afforestation.

Enhancing crop productivity and resilience by promoting soil organic carbon and moisture in wheat and maize rotation

Soils with high organic carbon (SOC) have been shown to enhance crop yields while minimizing climate-induced losses. However, the resilience impacts and mechanisms by which high SOC enhances crop performance have not been fully explored. Here, eight-year rotations of winter wheat and summer maize managed with chemical fertilizer input alone (CF) or with cattle manure (OM) or with peat and vermiculite (PV) were conducted, and various soil properties were measured alongside crop growth, nitrogen (N) uptake, and grain yield, with seasons categorized as dry or normal based on precipitation amounts. The OM and PV treatments increased SOC by 57% and 78% relative to the CF, respectively, and improved soil nutrient availability and the soil quality index. Soil moisture content in the 0–30 cm layer increased by 3.5–26.6%, but was less influenced in the 30–90 cm soil layers. Annual yield of wheat plus maize increased by 13% and 12% in OM and PV compared to the CF, and the yield sustainability index increased by 29% and 17%. Yield gains were more pronounced in dry compared to normal seasons, ranging from 19% to 28% and 12–15% for wheat. At least in part, the relative advantages of OM and PV treatments under drying conditions were associated with accelerated growth and N uptake rate from sowing to stem elongation for wheat and maize. Among the factors influencing yield in the present study, soil moisture exerted the greatest positive total effect on yield. Overall, the results highlight that enhanced SOC resulting from combined application of organic amendments and mineral fertilizer was positively associated with yield by promoting soil quality and water availability, with a more pronounced benefit under water-limited conditions.

Does lower water availability limit stem CO2 efflux of oak and hornbeam coppices?

Recent changes in water availability can be crucial for the development, growth and carbon budget of forests. Therefore, our aim was to determine the effect of reduced throughfall and severe summer drought on stem CO2 efflux as a function of temperature and stem increment. Stem CO2 efflux was measured using the chamber method on oak and hornbeam under four treatments: coppice, thinned coppice, and both coppice and thinned coppice with 30 %-reduced throughfall. The first year of the experiment had favourable soil water availability and the second year was characterized by a dry summer. While reduced throughfall had no effect on stem CO2 efflux, the summer drought decreased efflux by 43-81 % during July and August. The stem CO2 efflux was reduced less severely (by 13-40 %) in September when the drought persisted but the stem increment was already negligible. The stem increment was also strongly affected by the drought, which was reflected in its paired relationship with stem CO2 efflux over the two experimental years. The study showed that summer dry periods significantly and rapidly reduce stem CO2 efflux, whereas a constant 30 % rainfall reduction needs probably a longer time to affect stem properties, and indirectly stem CO2 efflux.

Genetic consequences of landscape features in two rear edge, highly fragmented metapopulations of a mediterranean conifer

ContextHabitat fragmentation is expected to erode genetic diversity, which instead needs to be preserved for promoting species adaptation to a changing climate. As this expectation has found mixed support in forest trees, consistent results on the genetic consequences of fragmentation requires adequately replicated experimental designs, as well as an explicit assessment of which landscape features, if any, could mitigate its detrimental effects.ObjectiveEvaluating the role of several landscape attributes in buffering the detrimental effects of fragmentation in two metapopulations of silver fir.MethodsWe genotyped 904 silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) trees from 18 local populations forming two metapopulations comparable for size and extension in the Apennines, a Mediterranean mountain range. We identified the signatures left by the fragmentation process on the genetic features of silver fir local populations. After removing potentially confounding effects due to different evolutionary histories, we used a multivariate approach for testing the relative effect of demographic, geographic, environmental and topographic factors on genetic features of both metapopulations.ResultsWe found comparable signals of the habitat fragmentation impact on the genetic diversity and structure of both investigated metapopulations. Fragmentation effects were less pronounced in the largest local populations (but not the least isolated), located on gentler slopes with higher soil water availability and lower heat exposure.ConclusionsOur results suggest the existence of a set of demographic and environmental factors that could have coherently buffered the detrimental genetic effects of fragmentation in both metapopulations. These findings could be useful to plan landscape restoration for the evolutionary rescue of mixed forests that once characterized Mediterranean mountain ecosystems.

Effects of alternative fertilization on common bean crops regarding productivity and nutritional levels

Considering the need for more information about productivity increases and nutritional improvement of soils, the present study evaluated the effects of alternative fertilization on grain yield and nutritional levels of bean crops. It was a randomized block study with four treatments and five replicates. The treatments were the absence of nitrogen fertilization, fertilizer use, chicken litter, and cattle manure. Organic fertilization provided lower variations in soil water availability during flowering and grain filling and increased nutrient concentrations, especially phosphorus and potassium. Chicken litter promoted the highest means for the number of legumes, the number of legumes on branches, the number of six-grain legumes, the mass of a thousand grains, grain mass per plant, and the normalized green-red difference index. However, the two organic fertilizers had significantly higher differences from chemical and no fertilization, showing that organic fertilizer applications must occur when nutrient availability coincides with the phenological stages essential for producing these fertilizers. High yields combined with favorable rainfall conditions occurred during crop development, as high soil moisture allowed faster mineralization of essential organic fertilizer nutrients, directly affecting yield. Pearson’s linear correlation allowed a better understanding of the participation of each plant trait in productivity, and the highest grain yield occurred with organic fertilization.

Root water uptake patterns are controlled by tree species interactions and soil water variability

Abstract. Root water uptake depends on soil moisture which is primarily fed by throughfall in forests. Several biotic and abiotic elements shape the spatial distribution of throughfall. It is well documented that throughfall patterns result in reoccurring higher and lower water inputs at certain locations. However, how the spatial distribution of throughfall affects root water uptake patterns remains unresolved. Therefore, we investigate root water uptake patterns by considering spatial patterns of throughfall and soil water in addition to soil and neighboring tree characteristics. In a beech-dominated mixed deciduous forest in a temperate climate, we conducted intensive throughfall sampling at locations paired with soil moisture sensors during the 2019 growing season. We employed a linear mixed-effects model to understand controlling factors in root water uptake patterns. Our results show that soil water patterns and interactions among neighboring trees are the most significant factors regulating root water uptake patterns. Temporally stable throughfall patterns did not influence root water uptake patterns. Similarly, soil properties were unimportant for spatial patterns of root water uptake. We found that wetter locations (rarely associated with throughfall hotspots) promoted greater root water uptake. Root water uptake in monitored soil layers also increased with neighborhood species richness. Ultimately our findings suggest that complementarity mechanisms within the forest stand, in addition to soil water variability and availability, govern root water uptake patterns.

Water productivity in pineapple (Ananas comosus) cultivation using plastic film to reduce evaporation and percolation

Irrigated agriculture needs significant amounts of water for increasing irrigated areas to meet the increase food demand. New alternatives with high water use efficiency are needed to increase crop productivity. This work evaluates the use of plastic film mulch either as groundcover or as a percolation barrier to increase yields and water use efficiency of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.). An experiment was carried out with pineapple on a loamy sand-soil. The treatments were: (i) soil tillage with plastic film as groundcover combined with plastic film as a percolation barrier installed at 0.40 m below the soil surface; (ii) soil tillage with no groundcover combined with a percolation barrier; (iii) soil tillage with plastic film as groundcover only; (iv) soil tillage without groundcover and percolation barrier. The use of plastic mulch maintained the levels of soil water availability at least 80% during the crop cycle, while without it soil water values ranged from 15% to 70%. Groundcover with plastic mulch contributed significantly to decrease evapotranspiration and the medium crop coefficient. The plastic groundcover combined with or without the plastic percolation barrier yielded the better results of productivity, irrigation water productivity, and water footprint. The mean irrigation water productivity and water footprint were 667.12 kg mm−1 ha−1 and 109.0 L kg−1, respectively, for the use of a plastic groundcover combined with a plastic percolation barrier. The percolation barrier was more effective for saving water than for increasing yield. The use of percolation barrier with plastic contributed for saving 92–103 L kg−1 ha−1 when combined with or without ground cover.

Differences in Soil Water Holding Capacity and Available Soil Water along Growing Cycle Can Explain Differences in Vigour, Yield, and Quality of Must and Wine in the DOCa Rioja

Soil water availability during the vine growth cycle can affect yield and grape quality. The objective was to evaluate the effect of soil water holding capacity (AWC) and available soil water (ASW) throughout the growing cycle on the nutritional status, vigor, production, and composition of grapes and wine. The study was conducted in the municipality of Uruñuela in the DOCa Rioja (Spain). The soils of four rainfed vineyard plots were characterized to determine AWC and its impacts on vine, grape, and wine composition. The N, P, and K foliar content, vigor, grape yield, berry weight, and composition of must and wine were analyzed in those vineyard plots during the period 2010–2014. The ASW was simulated in each plot and each year analyzed, considering the soil properties and the weather conditions, after model calibration in one plot in which soil water content was registered. The results showed that AWC influenced ASW along the growing cycle, so vines suffered from water stress in some periods of the vegetative cycle. Plots with higher AWC had higher ASW from fruit set to ripening and lower water stress during this period, which explains the higher N, P, and K foliar content, vigor and grape yield, and lower polyphenol and anthocyanin content in grapes and wines. The period where water availability had the most influence on the quality of the grapes was from veraison to ripening, during which ASW increased berry weight and acidity and decreased anthocyanins and polyphenolic compounds.

Negative effects of water deficit on cocoa tree yield are partially mitigated by irrigation and potassium application

Yields of most tropical crops are strongly reduced by drought, but this may be partially mitigated by irrigation and potassium application. Understanding the mechanisms regulating these relationships is essential to select crop varieties reaching high yield under environmental stress. We conducted a 2-year field experiment (2020–2022) to investigate the effects of seasonal irrigation, potassium application and their interaction on cocoa reproduction and yield, using six genotypes in Côte d’Ivoire. Potassium application increased pod number and size, contributing significantly to annual yield, but this effect was conditional to soil water availability. Similarly, irrigation when combined with potassium application almost doubled yield from 1.5 to 3.0 kg/tree (2000 kg ha−1 yr−1 to 4000 kg ha−1 yr−1, respectively). This yield effect was mostly the result of positive effects of irrigation on pod number per tree and, to a lesser extent, due to its positive effects on bean number per pod and bean mass. Irrigation effects on pod number were associated with an increased number of cherelles whereas the larger pod number during the major harvest compared to the minor harvest was associated with lower cherelle wilt. We also found a more than two-fold genotypic difference in yield, with the genotypes CI02 and CI03 and to a lesser extent hybrid M having lower yields having lower yields than the genotype CI01. These genotypic yield differences were associated with differences in both cherelle wilt and initial cherelle production rates. The effects of withholding irrigation on yield were significantly dependent on the genotype, reflecting a potential genotypic difference in drought tolerance. The development of climate adaptive strategies for cocoa production requires integrating effects of irrigation, potassium application and cocoa genotype on yields. Future research should focus on unraveling the underlying genotypic and ecophysiological mechanisms of the results presented here, and identifying other potential approaches to enhance the resilience of cocoa to increasing water deficit under climate change.