Soil Repellency Research Articles

Soil hydraulic conductivity differences between upslope and downslope of two coniferous trees on a hillslope

ABSTRACTStanding trees influence the redistribution of soil water around the trunk and alter water movement under the canopy on hillslopes. We investigated soil properties around trees to clarify the effect of trees on soil hydraulic properties of soil surface layers on a slope. The intact tree and cut tree plots of two coniferous tree species, Cryptomeria japonica and Chamaecyparis obtusa, were considered in the northern part of Kyushu, Japan. The soil properties on the upslope and downslope of individual trees or stumps were compared. The soil near-saturated hydraulic conductivity (kns) on the upslope of individual trees and stumps was higher than that on the downslope for both species. Although the distribution patterns of kns were similar in all plots, the determinant factors of kns seemed to be different. In the Cr. japonica intact tree plot, more litter tended to accumulate on the upslope of individual trees, and it seemed to indirectly enhance kns. However, the results of the cut tree plot suggested that kns was affected by factors other than the litter layer biomass. In the Ch. obtusa intact plot, high water repellency of soil on the downslope of individual trees reduced kns. Organic matter tended to accumulate on the upslope of Ch. obtusa individual stumps and in combination with water repellency appeared to affect kns. Our findings showed that soil hydraulic conductivity was affected by the distance and direction from a tree on a slope and that the effect was maintained for a few years after cutting.

Effects of Different Land Uses (Abandoned Farmland, Intensive Agriculture and Forest) on Soil Hydrological Properties in Southern Spain

A detailed knowledge of soil water repellency (SWR) and water infiltration capacity of soils under different land uses is of fundamental importance in Mediterranean areas, since these areas are prone to soil degradation risks (e.g., erosion, runoff of polluting compounds) as a response to different hydrological processes. The present study evaluates the effects of land uses on SWR and soil hydraulic conductivity (SHC) by direct measurements at the plot scale in three areas representing (1) intensive agricultural use, (2) abandoned farmland, and (3) a forest ecosystem in Southern Spain under Mediterranean climatic conditions. The physico-chemical properties and water content of the experimental soils were also measured. Significant SWR and SHC differences were found among the analyzed land uses. Forest soils showed high SWR and low SHC, while the reverse effects (that is, low SWR and high SHC) were detected in soils subjected to intensive agriculture. Organic matter and bulk density were important soil properties influencing SWR and SHC. The study, demonstrating how land uses can have important effects on the hydrological characteristics of soils, give land managers insights into the choice of the most suitable land use planning strategies in view of facing the high runoff and erosion rates typical of the Mediterranean areas.

Research on the Influence Depth of Soil with Different Burn Severity in the Burned Areas of E’gu Village in Yajiang County

The high temperature caused by forest fires often leads to changes of soil properties, however, there is few detailed studies on the influence depth of soil properties caused by different fire severities. Taking the burned areas of E’Gu Village in Yajiang County as the research object, the influence depth of soil with different fire severity was revealed with the help of field and laboratory experiments in this paper. According to the research results, the influence depth of forest fire on soil natural density, bulk density and porosity is less than 2cm, and the influence depth on moisture content is more than 2cm. But only in the severely burned soil, the bulk density and porosity behaved significant differences when contrast to unburnt soil. The influence depth of lightly burn on soil water repellency was 1cm, and the influence depth of moderately and severely burn on soil water repellency is 3cm. In addition, the variation of soil repellency in burned area was in direct proportion to burn severity. The influence depth of forest fire on soil permeability is not more than 4 cm, and the influence of lightly burn on soil permeability is not significant, while in moderately and severely burned areas, the soil permeability changes significantly.

Influence of manure, compost additions and temperature on the water repellency of tropical soils

Soil water repellency is a major concern in many systems as it substantially reduces infiltration and enhances surface runoff. While it is recognised that repellency is affected by the soil organic matter in natural ecosystems, the impact of manure and compost additions on the development and persistence of repellency in agroecosystems, particularly in the tropics, is poorly understood. We therefore examined the impact of different manure, compost additions and temperature on soil water repellency of tropical soils. We monitored the change in repellency in a Cambisol (Talparo – clay loam), Acrisol (Piarco – silt loam) and Arenosol (Arena – loamy sand), amended with three different manure and compost combinations at three different concentrations and four temperatures. Water repellency was the strongest among soils with higher clay content, which was likely due to the higher levels of organic matter observed in the clay loam. The cattle manure produced the most severe repellency despite having the lowest total organic carbon, whereas the sugarcane bagasse produced the lowest repellency. The increases in temperature had the strongest influence on repellency in sandy soils. Our results strongly support the findings of other studies that the quality of the organic material is more important than the total organic carbon in controlling the severity of repellency. This exploratory work also highlighted the importance of plant compost in reducing the level of repellency caused by cattle manure while still having a positive influence on the nutrient status of soils.

Soil water repellency of the artificial soil and natural soil in rocky slopes as affected by the drought stress and polyacrylamide

Soil water repellency (SWR) causes reduced soil water storage, enhanced runoff and reduced ecosystem productivity. Therefore, characterization of SWR is a prerequisite for effective environmental management. SWR has been reported under different soils, land uses and regions of the world, particularly in forest land and after wildfires; however, the understanding of this variable in the artificial soil of rocky slope eco-engineering is still rather limited. This study presented the characterization of SWR in the artificial soil affected by the polyacrylamide (PAM) and drought stress. There were two molecular weights of PAM, and the CK was without PAM application. Three types of soil were studied: natural soil and two types of artificial soil which have been sprayed for 1y and 5y, respectively. The drought stress experiments had three drought gradients, lasted for three weeks. Water repellency index (WRI) and soil-water contact angle (β) were determined using intrinsic sorptivity method by measuring the water sorptivity (SW) and ethanol sorptivity (SE) in all soil samples. The results showed that (1) Polyacrylamide treatments significantly increased SW by 3% to 38%, and reduced SE by 1% to 15%, WRI by 6% to 38%, β by 3% to 23% compared to the control group. Polyacrylamide treatments also increased water-stable aggregates content and total porosity by 22% to 33%, 11% to 20% relative to the control, while PAM with a higher molecular weight performed best. (2) The interaction between PAM and drought stress had a significant effect on WRI and β for all soil types (P<0.01) while it only had a significant effect on SW and SE for the artificial soil (P<0.01). (3) The artificial soil had a greater WRI and β than the natural soil.

Seasonal changes in soil water repellency of different land use types in Inner Mongolia grassland

Soil water repellency (SWR) is a physical phenomenon in which the rate of wetting is restricted and water beads are formed on the soil surface where the soil is called water-repellent soil. SWR analysis is necessary to interpret nonuniform wetting and preferential flow for site-specific ecosystems. This study aims to investigate the effects of soil water conditions and land use types on SWR in Leymus chinensis steppe soil in Xilinhot, Inner Mongolia, China. The main objective is to determine how SWR in soils in Inner Mongolia is influenced by different grassland utilization types, including no grazing since 1979 and 1999, winter grazing, and continuous grazing, by using water drop penetration time (WDPT). Results show that a slightly hydrophobic or hydrophilic soil behavior was often observed, and SWR was most evident in the months with the highest evaporation despite heavy rainfall. Changes in SWR in different seasons were affected by grazing intensity. The highest number of hydrophobic soil samples was found in the continuous grazing sites, followed by that in the winter grazing sites. Few hydrophobic soil samples were detected in the ungrazed sites since 1979, and the lowest number of samples was observed in the ungrazed sites since 1999. The SWR of different particle size classes decreased with increasing particle size. Therefore, SWR was significantly correlated with soil particle size class at 0–0.05 and 0.05–0.1mm. These results emphasized the need to consider SWR in soil utilization because grazing intensity affects the soil repellent properties in steppe soil and provided a basis for the development of grassland management.

Water vapour adsorption on water repellent sandy soils

AbstractSoil sorptivity is considered a key parameter describing early stages of water (rain) infiltration into a relatively dry soil and it is related to build-up complexity of the capillary system and soil wettability (contact angles of soil pore walls). During the last decade an increasing water repellency of sandy soils under pine forest and grassland vegetation has been frequently observed at Mlaky II location in SW Slovakia. The dry seasons result in uneven wetting of soil and up to hundredfold decrease in soil sorptivity in these vegetated soil as compared to reference sandy material, which was out of the reach of ambient vegetation and therefore readily wettable. As far as water binding to low moisture soils is governed by adsorption processes, we hypothesized that soil water repellency detected by water drop penetration test and by index of water repellency should also influence the water vapour adsorption parameters (monolayer water content, Wm, specific surface area, A, maximum adsorption water, Wa, maximum hygroscopic water MH, fractal dimension, DS and adsorption energies, Ea) derived from BET model of adsorption isotherms. We found however, that the connection of these parameters to water repellency level is difficult to interpret; nevertheless the centres with higher adsorption energy prevailed evidently in wettable materials. The water repellent forest and grassland soils reached less than 80% of the adsorption energy measured on wettable reference material. To get more conclusive results, which would not be influenced by small but still present variability of field materials, commercially available homogeneous siliceous sand was artificially hydrophobized and studied in the same way, as were the field materials. This extremely water repellent material had two-times lower surface area, very low fractal dimension (close to 2) and substantially lower adsorption energy as compared to the same siliceous sand when not hydrophobized.

Oil spill effects on soil hydrophobicity and related properties in a hyper-arid region

The effects of soil contamination by crude oil have been extensively studied in many parts of the world, revealing considerable impact on soil-water repellency and related hydraulic properties of soil. Yet, knowledge of such effects in hyper-arid regions is still scant. Two major oil spills occurred in the hyper-arid Arava Valley of Israel – one in 1975, and the second in 2014. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of the oil on the soil hydrophobicity and related physical properties. Additionally, decay in hydrophobicity over time was assessed by comparing these soil properties from the 1975 and 2014 contaminated sites. We hypothesized that the degradation of oil over time would cause a decrease in hydrophobicity during this 40-year time span. The study was implemented by on-site monitoring of the soil penetration resistance, water drop penetration time, critical surface tension, and hydraulic conductivity, as well as by laboratory measurements of drop contact angle and soil texture. All of these tests were conducted at the ground surface, at 5-cm, and 10-cm depths of the 1975 and 2014 contaminated sites, as well as for non-contaminated sites nearby. Despite the approximately 3.5 times smaller mean concentrations of total petroleum hydrocarbon at the 1975 site (7800mg/kg) compared to the 2014 site (26,400mg/kg), the study results revealed a general similarity of hydrophobicity and related soil properties between them. Therefore, the obtained results negated the study hypothesis, revealing the persistence of hydrophobicity over time.

Dissolved Organic Matter Compositional Change and Biolability During Two Storm Runoff Events in a Small Agricultural Watershed

AbstractAgricultural watersheds are globally pervasive, supporting fundamentally different organic matter source, composition, and concentration profiles in comparison to natural systems. Similar to natural systems, agricultural storm runoff exports large amounts of organic carbon from agricultural land into waterways. But intense management of upper soil layers, waterway channelization, wetland and riparian habitat removal, and postharvest vegetation removal promise to uniquely drive organic matter release to waterways. During a winter first flush and a subsequent storm event, this study investigated the influence of a small agricultural watershed on dissolved organic matter (DOM) source, composition, and biolability. Storm water discharge released strongly terrestrial yet biolabile (23 to 32%) dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Following a 21 day bioassay, a parallel factor analysis identified an 80% reduction in a protein‐like (phenylpropyl) component (C2) that was previously correlated to lignin phenol concentration, and a 10% reduction in a humic‐like, terrestrially sourced component (C4). Storm‐driven releases tripled DOC concentration (from 2.8 to 8.7 mg L−1) during the first flush event in comparison to base flow and were terrestrially sourced, with an eightfold increase in vascular plant derived lignin phenols (23.0 to 185 μg L−1). As inferred from system hydrology, lignin composition, and nitrate as a groundwater tracer, an initial pulse of dilute water from the upstream watershed caused a counterclockwise DOC hysteresis loop. DOC concentrations peaked after 3.5 days, with the delay between peak discharge and peak DOC attributed to storm water hydrology and a period of initial water repellency of agricultural soils, which delayed DOM leaching.

Effects of Endophyte-infected (Epichloë coenophaila) Tall Fescue Residues on Water Repellency and Structural Stability of Texturally-Different Soils

Effects of Endophyte-infected (Epichloë coenophaila) Tall Fescue Residues on Water Repellency and Structural Stability of Texturally-Different Soils

Pore‐scale water dynamics during drying and the impacts of structure and surface wettability

AbstractPlants and microbes secrete mucilage into soil during dry conditions, which can alter soil structure and increase contact angle. Structured soils exhibit a broad pore size distribution with many small and many large pores, and strong capillary forces in narrow pores can retain moisture in soil aggregates. Meanwhile, contact angle determines the water repellency of soils, which can result in suppressed evaporation rates. Although they are often studied independently, both structure and contact angle influence water movement, distribution, and retention in soils. Here drying experiments were conducted using soil micromodels patterned to emulate different aggregation states of a sandy loam soil. Micromodels were treated to exhibit contact angles representative of those in bulk soil (8.4° ± 1.9°) and the rhizosphere (65° ± 9.2°). Drying was simulated using a lattice Boltzmann single‐component, multiphase model. In our experiments, micromodels with higher contact angle surfaces took 4 times longer to completely dry versus micromodels with lower contact angle surfaces. Microstructure influenced drying rate as a function of saturation and controlled the spatial distribution of moisture within micromodels. Lattice Boltzmann simulations accurately predicted pore‐scale moisture retention patterns within micromodels with different structures and contact angles.

Effects of ionic surfactants on the aggregate stability and water repellency of silt loam soil

Purpose With the increase of surfactant usages, more and more concerns were paid on their effects on the physicochemical characteristics of soils. Up to now, only few researches have examined the effects of ionic surfactants on the stability of soil structure and soil water repellency.

Surfactant and Polymer‐Coated Sand Effects on Deficit Irrigated Bermudagrass Turf

Sand topdressing and soil surfactants are commonly applied to turfgrass areas but it is unclear whether these practices improve visual appearance or reduce hydrophobicity under deficit irrigation. A study was conducted from 2011 to 2013 at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces, NM, to evaluate two topdressing materials and a soil surfactant on deficit irrigated Princess 77 bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) grown on a loamy sand (mixed, thermic Typic Torripsamment). Treatments consisted of monthly applications of a polymer‐coated hydrophilic sand (ACA 3114) or straight sand with or without the soil surfactant and an untreated control. Plots were mowed at 2.0 cm and irrigated at either 70 or 50% of reference evapotranspiration for short grass (ETos). When results were averaged over the research period, plots irrigated at 50% ETos and receiving ACA 3114 or sand topdressing and the soil surfactant exhibited greater green coverage (85.3 and 88.2%, respectively) and better turfgrass quality (6.6 and 6.5, respectively, with 1 = worst, 9 = best) than control plots (71.6% green coverage, quality = 5.1) or plots receiving sand topdressing only (74.7% green coverage, quality = 5.3). Soil repellency in the upper root zone was detected only in 2011, and applications of both ACA 3114 and straight sand topdressing with the soil surfactant on plots irrigated at 50% ETos resulted in lower water drop penetration times (7s and 1s) compared to sand topdressing (12s) only. Our results suggest that bermudagrass quality can be maintained under deficit irrigation if either topdressed with a hydrophilic sand or with straight sand combined with a surfactant.Core Ideas We describe the use of a novel, polymer coated, hydrophilic sand for topdressing bermudagrass turf in an arid climate. We examined if the coated sand affects bermudagrass quality differently than a commercially available surfactant or topdressing with sand only. We also investigated if the polymer coated sand is useful in preventing drought stress when irrigation is applied at reduced evapotranspiration replacement.

Use of Clay Dispersed in Water for Decreasing Soil Water Repellency

AbstractIn this study, we examined the efficiency of a kaolinite clayey soil to mitigate water repellency of a sandy soil with olive trees. The treatment was applied to the soil zone below the tree canopy, which displayed the highest degree of water repellency [average water drop penetration time (WDPT) value = 820 s]. Both dry (incorporated onto the top soil) and wet clay applications (after dispersion in irrigation water) were examined in a replicated experiment, with control trees being used for comparison. The application rate of the clayey soil was maintained in both cases (wet and dry mode) equal to 1 kg m−2, while the effect of subsequent wetting and drying cycles on the treatment performance was evaluated. The results of the study verify that clay application was effective to mitigate soil water repellency. Dry supplementation displayed low efficiency (26% reduction of the air‐dry WDPT compared with the control soil) within the first week of application. The efficiency of the dry‐clay treatment increased to 76% after applying three subsequent wetting and drying cycles. In comparison with the dry mode, the wet clay was efficient immediately after application (74% reduction of the WDPT), indicating that the limiting step in the overall process was clay dispersion. Based on the findings of this study, it was proposed that wet clay application is of interest for controlling soil water repellency in agricultural land. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Influence of organic manure amendments on water repellency, water entry value, and water retention of soil samples from a tropical Ultisol

Abstract Lowered stability of soil aggregates governed by insufficient organic matter levels has become a major concern in Sri Lanka. Although the use of organic manure with water repellent properties lowers the wetting rates and improves the stability of soil aggregates, its effects on soil hydrophysical properties are still not characterized. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the relation of water repellency induced by organic manure amendments to the water entry value and water retention of a Sri Lankan Ultisol. The soil was mixed with ground powders of cattle manure (CM), goat manure (GM), Gliricidia maculata (GL) and hydrophobic Casuarina equisetifolia (CE) leaves to obtain samples ranging from non-repellent to extremely water repellent, in two series. Series I was prepared by mixing GL and CE with soil (5, 10, 25, 50%). Series II consisted of 5% CM, GM, and GL, with (set A) and without (set B) intermixed 2% CE. Water repellency, water entry value, and water retention of samples were determined in the laboratory. Soil-water contact angle increased with increasing organic matter content in all the samples showing positive linear correlations. Although the samples amended with CE showed high soil-water contact angles in series I, set A (without 2% CE) and set B (with 2% CE) in series II did not show a noticeable difference, where &gt;80% of the samples had soil-water contact angles &lt;90°. Water entry value (R2 = 0.83–0.92) and the water retention at 150 cm suction (R2 = 0.69–0.8) of all the samples increased with increasing soil-water contact angles showing moderate to strong positive linear correlations. However, set A (without 2% CE) and set B (with 2% CE) in series II did not differ noticeably. Water entry value of about 60% the samples was &lt;2.5 cm. Mixing of a small amount (2%) of hydrophobic organic matter with commonly used organic manures slightly increased the water repellency of sample soils, however not up to detrimental levels. It did not generate adverse effects on water entry and increased the water retention. It was clear that intermixing of small quantities of hydrophobic organic manure with organic manures commonly used in Sri Lankan agriculture, would not generate unfavorable impacts on soils.

Soil and vegetation recovery following alien tree clearing in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

AbstractThe impact of alien tree clearing on soil and vegetation recovery remains largely understudied. This study focused on changes in soil and vegetation properties following Acacia removal. The aim was to quantify the long‐term consequences of alien clearing. Paired cleared (old – 15 years; medium – 11 years; recent – 6 years) and uncleared sites were selected along the Palmiet catchment in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Various soil physico‐chemical properties (soil moisture, pH, P, N, C, K, Na, Ca, Mg and soil repellency) and vegetation diversity measures were studied on 10 m × 10 m plots. Results indicate that measured soil nutrients are significantly (P &lt; 0.05) lower in cleared than in uncleared sites. However, comparisons among cleared sites alone indicate that soil properties are recovering with older cleared sites having higher (P &lt; 0.05) nutrients than recent cleared sites. Soils in uncleared sites are more repellent than soil in cleared sites. Vegetation recovery in cleared sites was taking place with older cleared sites having higher native species diversity than recently cleared site. We conclude that the removal of alien plants could have caused a reduction in soil nutrients. However, as native vegetation recovers on cleared sites, soil nutrients are gradually improving.

An efficient method for the collection of root mucilage from different plant species—A case study on the effect of mucilage on soil water repellency

AbstractRoot mucilage may play a prominent role in understanding root water uptake and, thus, there is revived interest in studying the function of root mucilage. However, mucilage research is hampered by the tedious procedures of mucilage collection. We developed a mucilage separator which utilizes low centrifugal forces (570 rpm) to separate the mucilage from seminal roots without the need of handling individual seeds or removing the germinated seeds from the tray/mesh to a centrifuge tube. For the different plant species, between 1 and 3.7 mL tray−1 of hydrated mucilage could be produced, with 6 trays being handled successively within 45 min. For Triticum aestivum, which showed a dry matter content of 0.5%, this was equivalent to 98.6 mg mucilage dry matter. The lowest total production was found for Zea mays with just 34 mg dry matter. The amounts of mucilage produced normalized to root tip agree well with literature data.The mucilage obtained by the new method was used to measure its effect on repellency of soil as this property directly relates to the phenomenon of lower rhizosphere soil water content during rewetting. It could be shown that repellency of the rhizosphere is affected by the quantity as well as by species‐dependent quality of mucilage in the rhizosphere. Among the species tested (Lupinus albus, Vicia faba, Zea mays, Triticum aestivum), the largest differences were observed between the two legumes. For Zea mays seminal root mucilage obtained with the new system was compared to mucilage of air born brace roots. The differences between these two mucilages, representing different root orders, indicate clearly that there is still a need for methods which enable the investigation of roots from older plants.

Effects of relative humidity on the water repellency of fire-affected soils

Soil water repellency (SWR) is a common feature in unburned and particularly in fire-affected soils, and can enhance several environmental risks. It can be affected by many factors such as vegetation cover, moisture content and, in fire-affected areas, the degree of heating during burning. In addition, experiments using unburned soils have shown that atmospheric relative humidity can affect their water repellency. The purpose of this laboratory study was to examine how ambient relative humidity (RH) affects SWR of burned soils, and to explore its implications for fire-affected regions. Soil samples were taken from under fire-prone, but long unburned Pinus halepensis and a shrub site in Gorga, Alicante (SE Spain). In order to simulate different fire severities, samples were heated for 20min at different temperatures (50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 and 350°C). Samples were then equilibrated at different RHs (30, 50, 70 and 95%) in a sealed climate chamber at a constant temperature of 20°C. The water drop penetration time (WDPT) test, molarity of ethanol droplet (MED) test, and advancing contact angle (CA) measurements were performed inside the sealed climate chamber to assess SWR for each sample and treatment. Overall, increasing heat treatments enhanced SWR, which in turn was enhanced further following exposure to high RHs. The WDPT test showed that soils under pine were water repellent at the lowest heating temperature and became strongly water repellent at the higher heating temperatures and near saturation (95% RH). Shrubland soils were mostly wettable at the onset and remained so at every RH level studied except being slightly SWR at 95% RH. A similar trend was found after MED and CA measurements. The results demonstrate that high RH contributes to enhanced SWR also in burned soils, where high temperatures had already led to a substantial enhancement of SWR. These findings suggest that SWR levels determined for fire affected areas ambient under field or laboratory conditions may underestimate the apparent SWR levels present at the high RH levels that often precede major storm events. This in turn has implications for predicting post-fire runoff and erosion events.

Water Repellency of Monument Soil Treated by Tung Oil

Earthen monuments exposed at archeological sites are afflicted by a series of diseases, such as shrinkage, cracking, and collapse, related to moisture evaporation or partially soaked in ground water. Water repellency treatment is a promising improvement to the durability of earthen monuments. To understand the hydrophobic mechanism of the soil treated by Tung oil, geotechnical tests, including permeability test and water repellency test, in the laboratory were conducted on clay soil sampled from a site where Da Bao’en Temple was in Nanjing, China. Test results indicate that Tung oil film coated on the soil particles could well decrease the surface tension and free energy, providing waterproofing property without obvious change in esthetic appearance. Laboratory tests indicate that Tung oil treatment decreases the hydraulic conductivity and increases the water repellency of the soil. Water repellent treatment with Tung oil provides a new approach for earthen monument conservation under humid weather condition.

Double layer approach to create durable superhydrophobicity on cotton fabric using nano silica and auxiliary non fluorinated materials

Creation of differential superhydrophobicity by applying different non-fluorinated hydrophobization agents on a cotton fabric roughened with silica nanoparticles was studied. Cotton fabric surface has been functionalized with silica nanoparticles and further hydrophobized with different hydrophobic agents such as hexadecyltrimethoxy silane (HDTMS), stearic acid (SA), triethoxyoctyl silane (OTES) and hybrid mixtures of HDTMS/SA and HDTMS/OTES. The cotton fabrics before and after the treatment were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The wetting behavior of cotton samples was investigated by water contact angle (WCA) measurement, water uptake, water repellency and soil repellency testing. The treated fabrics exhibited excellent water repellency and high water contact angles (WCA). When the mixture of two hydrophobization agents such as HDTMS/OTES and HDTMS/SA is used, the water contact angle has increased (145°⿿160°) compared to systems containing HDTMS, OTES, SA alone (130°⿿140°). It was also noted that this fabricated double layer (silica+hydrophobization agent) was robust even after applying harsh washing conditions and there is an excellent anti-soiling effect observed over different stains. Therefore superhydrophobic cotton surfaces with high WCA and soil repellency could be obtained with silica and mixture of hydrophobization agents which are cost effective and environmentally friendly when compared with the fluorosilane treatment.