Soil-related Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Trade‐offs and synergistic relationships on soil‐related ecosystem services in Central Asia under land use and land cover change

AbstractDue to climate change and human activities, land desertification, a major environmental issue in arid regions, has exerted an impact on ecosystem services (ES). However, previous ES assessments in arid regions lacked the integrated assessment and trade‐off analysis of soil‐related ecosystem services (S‐ES). To address this, we developed a S‐ES‐Bayesian network (S‐ES‐BN) model to analyze the trade‐offs and synergies between the complex relationships between S‐ES and their multiple influences in Central Asia (CA). The results showed that (1) there is a large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in S‐ES, with the most significant changes in water yield service (WY, −30%) and soil conservation service (SC, −26%) in the past 30 years (1990–2020); (2) land use and land cover change (LUCC) area shifts can have a gaining or weakening effect on the S‐ES. Among them, water to wetland had the most obvious gain effect on SC (+5.1 t·km2·yr−1) and water to forestland had the most pronounced effect on carbon fixation service (CF, +251.22 t); and (3) based on the S‐ES‐BN, an optimal configuration of S‐ES in CA demonstrated that the intensification of a future “warming and wetting” scenario in CA might lead to significant decreases in WY (−37%) and sand fixation (−7%). In addition, the clarification of the land allocation structure (cropland, forestland, and grassland) in LUCC will enhance the spatial demand for CF.

Chronosequential changes in soil-related ecosystem services after coastal reclamation: Insights for coastal cropland protection

Coastal reclamation has been used widely to accommodate urbanization and support increasing food demand. However, the responses of soil properties and soil-related ecosystem services (SES) to reclamation remain unclear. There are no effective operational methods for calculating the SES provided by reclaimed cropland. Using field sampling data of soil properties, we proposed a framework to evaluate the influence of reclamation on the soil's ability to provide five SESs: plant growth support (SES1), carbon storage (SES2), nutrient cycling (SES3), erosion control (SES4), and habitat provision (SES5). A series of SES indices were constructed accordingly and tested using data from a reclaimed soil chronosequence over 700 years in Hangzhou Bay, China. The results showed that all the SES indices increased significantly along the reclamation chronosequence, with the highest impact for SES2 (273.7% of soil C storage growth) owing to long-term continuous cultivation and fertilization. Most of the indices have a different logarithmic relationship with reclamation time, with a faster growth rate in the first 50 years, while SES1 increases linearly with reclamation time. Using soil organic matter as a reference, the sensitivity of SESs to reclamation is SES4 > SES2 > SES5 > SES3 > SES1. The significant positive correlations between all SES indices suggest that the provision of the five SESs is interdependent, with strong synergy. Our methods and index system can be effectively used to monitor coastal cropland protection and promote sustainable management of reclaimed land.

Constructing soils for climate-smart mining

Surface mining is inherently linked to climate change, but more precise monitoring of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is necessary. Here we combined the geolocation of mine sites and carbon stock datasets to show that if all legal active mining sites in Brazil are exploited over the next decades, 2.55 Gt of CO2 equivalent (CO2eq) will be emitted due to the loss of vegetation (0.87 Gt CO2eq) and soil (1.68 Gt CO2eq). To offset these emissions, we propose constructing soils (Technosols) from mine and other wastes for mine reclamation. We show that this strategy could potentially offset up to 60% (1.00 Gt CO2eq) of soil-related CO2 emissions. When constructed with suitable parent materials, Technosols can also restore important soil-related ecosystem services while improving waste management. The construction of healthy Technosols stands out as a promising nature-based solution towards carbon-neutral mining and should, therefore, be considered in future environmental policies of major mining countries.

Trade-offs and synergies in agricultural landscapes: A study on soil-related ecosystem services in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest

In recent years, numerous studies have addressed the theme of ecosystem services as a means of promoting the protection, sustainable use, and recovery of ecosystems. However, these studies mainly have not been fully evaluated the soil-related ecosystem services and the different land uses and land cover. Taking this as a background, our main goal is to evaluate the trade-offs and synergies in the provision of soil-related ecosystem services in a watershed located in the highlands of Rio de Janeiro state - Brazil. To do so, we evaluated soil properties as indicators. In addition, statistical methods were applied to analyze any significant differences between the variables for the different land use classes, and Spearman correlation matrix to evaluate the trade-offs and synergies. No significant difference (p > 0.05) was found between the different land uses for soil fertility parameters, bulk density, and organic matter; however, the trade-offs analysis demonstrated the impact of anthropogenic actions in ecosystem services provision. The methodology showed potential to be used in different studies that focus on ecosystem services evaluations.

Composite index for soil-related ecosystem services assessment: Insights from rainforest-pasture transitions in the Colombian Amazon

Land use change is one of the major drivers of soil degradation, affecting the ability of soils to supply multiple ecosystem services (ES). Despite the growing importance of soil-related ES, there is a lack of comprehensive methodologies to systematize how land use change affects the ability of soil to supply them. Here, by using primary information on soil properties, we develop a series of indices to assess the impact of land use change on the ability of soil to supply five soil-related ES: support for plant growth (SES1), C storage (SES2), nutrient cycling (SES3), erosion control (SES4), and water regulation and aeration (SES5). We focus our analysis on the rainforest-pasture transition for extensive ranching in the Colombian Amazon. Despite the global importance of the Amazon Forest biome, the existing methodological and knowledge gaps restrict our understanding of the impacts of land use change in the region’s soil-related ES. The results revealed that the extensive conversion of forest to pasture degraded the soil’s ability to supply all measured soil-related ES, with a higher impact for SES2 (47% of soil C storage reduction), SES1, and SES4 (40% and 31% decline of related indices, respectively). According to the average scores for the three sites, the capacity of the soil to supply related ES is severely threatened by extensive ranching, causing a decline in the index from 99% in forest sites to 73% in pasture sites. A significant correlation among most indices revealed that the supply of the five soil-related ES is interdependent, with the indices of soil C storage and erosion control services being the major drivers of synergies and trade-offs. Our study highlights the importance of re-adjusting management practices to mitigate the negative historical impacts of pasture conversion on soil properties linked to soil-related ES.

Pea-based cover crop mixtures have greater plant belowground biomass, but lower plant aboveground biomass than a pure stand of pea

In eastern Canada, organic grain producers have a rising interest in using cover crop mixtures instead of pure stands to maximize ecosystem services. Yield stability and belowground biomass of cover crop mixtures have however received limited attention in the scientific literature, although they do affect ecosystem services. The aims of this study were to evaluate the aboveground and belowground biomass and yield stability of pea-based cover crop mixtures, and to assess species-specific contributions to aboveground biomass. In a field experiment conducted at three site-years in Quebec, Canada, a pure stand of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and cover crop mixtures of 2, 6, and 12 species, all including field pea, were compared to a weedy control (without cover crop). The mixtures were seeded according to a substitutive unbalanced design. The proportion of field pea ranged from 45% to 93% of the aboveground plant biomass within all mixtures. Among all site-years, pure stand of field pea provided the highest aboveground biomass (2636 kg ha−1), followed by the 2-species mixture (2320 kg ha−1) and both multi-species cover crop mixtures (mean of 1849 kg ha−1). Aboveground biomass was inversely correlated to cover crop diversity (Pearson coefficient of −0.73), and inversely correlated to weed biomass (Pearson coefficient of −0.54). Pure stand of field pea had the lowest belowground biomass and stability (693 kg ha−1, CV of 28%) when compared to mixtures (886 kg ha−1, CV of 14% on average). This study confirms that the value of pea-based mixtures, compared to a pure stand of field pea, lies mainly below the soil surface rather than above it. This could likely enhance many soil-related ecosystem services.

Soil enzyme responses to land use change in the tropical rainforest of the Colombian Amazon region.

Soil enzymes mediate key processes and functions of the soils, such as organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling in both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Here, we studied the activity of five extracellular soil enzymes involved in the C, N, and P-mineralizing process in both litter and surface soil layer of rainforest in the northwest region of the Colombian Amazon and the response of those soil enzymes to land use change. The experimental study design included six study sites for comparing long-term pasture systems to native forest and regeneration practices after pasture, within the main landscapes of the region, mountain and hill landscapes separately. Results showed considerable enzymatic activity in the litter layer of the forest, highlighting the vital role of this compartment in the nutrient cycling of low fertility soils from tropical regions. With the land use transition to pastures, changes in soil enzymatic activities were driven by the management of pastures, with SOC and N losses and reduced absolute activity of soil enzymes in long-term pastures under continuous grazing (25 years). However, the enzyme activities expressed per unit of SOC did not show changes in C and N-acquiring enzymes, suggesting a higher mineralization potential in pastures. Enzymatic stoichiometry analysis indicated a microbial P limitation that could lead to a high catabolic activity with a potential increase in the use of SOC by microbial communities in the search for P, thus affecting soil C sequestration, soil quality and the provision of soil-related ecosystem services.

Use of metabolomics to quantify changes in soil microbial function in response to fertiliser nitrogen supply and extreme drought

Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity of droughts in many regions of the world. Soil health is likely to be negatively impacted by these extreme events. It is therefore important to understand the impact of drought on soil functioning and the delivery of soil-related ecosystem services. This study aimed to assess the resilience and change in physiological status of the microbial community under extreme moisture stress conditions using novel metabolic profiling approaches, namely complex lipids and untargeted primary metabolites. In addition, we used phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) profiling to identify changes in microbial community structure. Soil samples were collected during a natural, extreme drought event and post-drought from replicated grassland split plots, planted with either deep-rooting Festulolium (cv. AberNiche) or Lolium perenne L. (cv. AberEcho), receiving nitrogen (N) fertiliser loading rates at either 0 or 300 kg N ha−1 yr−1. These plots were split at the start of the drought period, and half of each subplot was irrigated with water throughout the drought period at a rate of 50 mm week−1 to alleviate moisture stress. PLFA analysis revealed a distinct shift in microbial community between drought and post-drought conditions, primarily driven by N loading and water deficit. Complex lipid analysis identified 239 compounds and untargeted analysis of primary metabolites identified 155 compounds. Both soil complex lipids and primary metabolites showed significant changes under drought conditions. Additionally, the irrigated ‘reference’ plots had a significantly higher cumulative greenhouse gas (CO2 and N2O) flux over the period of sampling. Recovery of the microbial lipidome and metabolome to reference plot levels post-drought was rapid (within days). Considerable changes in soil primary metabolomic and lipidomic concentrations shown in this study demonstrate that while soil metabolism was strongly affected by moisture stress, the system (plant and soil) was highly resilient to an intense drought.

The impact of soil erosion on soil-related ecosystem services: development and testing a scenario-based assessment approach

The ecosystem service (ES) approach usually addresses soil erosion as the regulating service control of erosion rates or soil retention. In addition to the assessment of this regulating ES, mitigated impacts on soil-related ES by preventing soil erosion can be assessed. This study presents a scenario-based approach for the assessment of the impact of soil erosion on soil-related ES. The assessment approach was tested in agricultural landscapes in Northern Germany, combining mapping and assessment of soil-related ES. In six scenarios, the degradation of soils due to soil erosion was simulated by the calculation of soil profile reductions. The scenarios represent two levels of impact with three time steps (+50, +100, +150 years). In the scenarios for the structural impact, the potential soil erosion rates were extrapolated into the future to generate spatially explicit information on degraded soils. In the scenarios for the mitigated impact, the actual soil erosion rates were extrapolated. Four soil-related ES were assessed for the initial state and the scenarios crop provision, water filtration, water flow regulation and fresh water provision. The comparison of the potential service supply of the four soil-related ES in the scenarios enabled the assessment of the long-term effect of the ES control of erosion rates. The mitigated reduction in the potential service supply for three of the considered ES (crop provision, water filtration, water flow regulation) is large and highlights the importance of sustainable soil management. Contrary to this, the ES fresh water provision benefits of erosion-induced soil profile reductions.

Green Infrastructures and the Consideration of Their Soil-Related Ecosystem Services in Urban Areas—A Systematic Literature Review

Although urban soils are strongly influenced by human activities, they provide a wide range of Ecosystem Services (ES) as long as they are not sealed off. This is a major sustainability issue as the loss of soil functions directly impacts ES and further on the possibility to adapt to the effects of the climate crisis. Green Infrastructure (GI) measures can be utilized to restore previously covered soil surfaces and compensate for lost soil functions. We conducted a systematic literature review to investigate the extent of peer-reviewed publications on GI measures in (peri-) urban areas covering soil-related ES. After identifying the relevant publications (n = 284), we generated an overview of the annual, spatial, and thematic distribution of the publications. Then, we employed an extended content analysis of the published focus topics to assess the representation of soil-related ES provided by GI. The content analysis revealed that the representation of soil-related ES in GI measures focused heavily on the contribution of soil to stormwater management. Detailed assessment of the interconnection of GI measures with key soil-related ES were missing. So far, the assessment of the loss of soil-related ES is not covered extensively in GI research publications.

Epigeic fauna (with emphasis on ant community) response to land-use change for sugarcane expansion in Brazil

The epigeic fauna, ground surface-dwelling invertebrates that inhabit leaf-litter, acts on multiple soil processes and key ecosystem services and is threatened by global land-use change (LUC). In Brazil, LUC for sugarcane expansion over extensive pasture has been taking place for promoting bioenergy production; however, conventional sugarcane cultivation includes monoculture, periodic soil tillage and agrochemicals may alter the quantity and quality of crop residue inputs, soil habitats and communities of soil fauna. Thus, a field study at three sites in central southern Brazil was conducted to evaluate if the expansion of sugarcane cultivation affects soil epigeic fauna. In each site, we sampled epigeic fauna in areas under LUC from native vegetation to extensive pasture, and from that to sugarcane. The epigeic fauna was collected using pitfall traps and then quantified and classified in taxonomic groups (Order, Class, Family). In addition, as a focal organism group, ants were classified at the species level. Overall, 13 taxonomic groups were identified, in which the Formicidae family was the most abundant group (i.e., 67% of individuals), followed by Diptera (13%), Araneae (5%) and Coleoptera (4%). Land transition from native vegetation to pasture increased fauna abundance by 27% but reduced the diversity of epigeic fauna community by 43%. In contrast, sugarcane expansion over extensive pasture reduced fauna abundance (−22%), did not alter the diversity of the invertebrate community at a broad taxonomic level, but decreased species richness of the dominant taxa (ants) by 55%. Ant individuals were classified into 37 species, allowing to verify that sugarcane cultivation over pastures decreased both the abundance and richness of ants and altered community composition. Ant species Ectatomma brunneum were more sensitive to LUC and, therefore, could be characterized as potential indicators of disturbed environments. We demonstrate that sugarcane expansion over pasturelands reduces the total abundance of the soil epigeic fauna, and that effects on fauna diversity vary from broad to fine taxonomic resolutions. Further studies are needed to evaluate if the declines in fauna abundance and ant species richness impair specific soil functions and soil-related ecosystem services.

Distinct controls over the temporal dynamics of soil carbon fractions after land use change.

Soil organic carbon (SOC), the largest terrestrial carbon pool, plays a significant role in soil-related ecosystem services such as climate regulation, soil fertility and agricultural production. However, its fate under land use change is difficult to predict. A major issue is that SOC comprised of numerous organic compounds with potentially distinct and poorly understood turnover properties. Here we use spatiotemporal measurements of the particulate (POC), mineral-associated (MOC) and charred SOC (COC) fractions from 176 trials involving changes in land use to assess their underlying controls. We find that the initial pool sizes of each of the three fractions consistently and dominantly control their temporal dynamics after changes in land use (i.e. the baseline effects). The effects of climate, soil physicochemical properties and plant residues, however, are fraction- and time-dependent. Climate and soil properties show similar importance for controlling the dynamics of MOC and COC, while plant residue inputs (in term of their quantity and quality) are much less important. For POC, plant residues and management practices (e.g. the frequency of pasture in crop-pasture rotation systems) are substantially more important, overriding the influence of climate. These results demonstrate the pivotal role of measuring SOC composition and considering fraction-specific stabilization and destabilization processes for effective SOC management and reliable SOC predictions.

Livestock grazing abandonment reduces soil microbial activity and carbon storage in a Mediterranean Dehesa

Extensive livestock grazing is a major determinant of local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in many regio1ns of the world. In sub-humid Mediterranean areas with long history of extensive grazing, abandonment of grazing has been linked to changes in the composition and structure of vegetation communities and decreases in soil multifunctionality, with potential cascading consequences for ecosystem services such as soil fertility and potential for soil carbon storage. Herein, we assessed the effects of livestock grazing abandonment on soil fertility and the ability of soil microbial communities to process organic matter (enzymatic activity and decomposition rate using the Tea Bag Index) in twenty-four study sites in a Quercus ilex dehesa from Central Spain. Sites were distributed across four levels of grazing (none, very low, low and moderate) and two levels of resource availability in terms of water and nutrients (upper slope and lower slope zones). Grazing abandonment and upper slope zones were associated with a lower accumulation of organic matter and availability of nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium in the soil. Grazing abandonment also had a negative effect on microbial enzyme activity, which was directly related to litter decomposition and the ability of microbial communities to stabilize soil carbon. Microbial effects were particularly marked in the lower zones, indicating the modulating role of topography on the consequences of land use changes. Environmental management policies should consider the positive ecological effects of traditional grazing in regions with long evolutionary history of grazing by domestic livestock, and how the abandonment of these practices could negatively affect soil ecosystem functions and the provision of soil-related ecosystem services.

Taxonomic and Functional Response of Millipedes (Diplopoda) to Urban Soil Disturbance in a Metropolitan Area.

Urbanization, as a major cause of local species extinction and biotic homogenization, drastically alters soil life. Millipedes are a key group of soil macrodetritivores and significantly influence soil quality, mainly through their essential role in nutrient cycling. Therefore, studying their taxonomic and functional responses to urban disturbance is crucial, as they contribute to the provision of several soil-related ecosystem services in cities. Differently degraded rural, urban forests and other woody patches (e.g., parks, gardens, and cemeteries) were sampled on Buda and Pest sides of the Budapest metropolitan area divided by the Danube River. We measured the most relevant physical and chemical properties of topsoil to characterize habitats. We applied an urbanization index based on vegetation cover and built-up area of the study sites to quantify urban intensity. The composition of the assemblages was determined by the division of the city along the Danube. Urbanization was associated with a reduction in species and functional richness of millipedes on both sides of Budapest. β diversity and species turnover increased with urban intensity. Urban disturbance was the main driver in assembly of taxonomic and functional community composition. A new species (Cylindroiulus caeruleocinctus (Wood, 1864)) to the fauna of Budapest was found. Detritivore invertebrates depend on leaf litter and other dead organic matter types, therefore microsites providing these resources greatly improve their survival. Due to increasing urban disturbance, it is recommended to provide appropriate detritus and shelter sites as part of the management of green spaces in order to maintain species richness, abundance, and function of species.

Typology of extreme flood event leads to differential impacts on soil functioning

Soils around the world are being exposed to weather events which are unprecedented in recent history. To maintain the delivery of soil-related ecosystem services and to promote greater soil resilience it is essential to understand how plant-soil systems respond to these extreme events. In this study we replicated a recent period of extreme rainfall and prolonged spring flooding in a temperate grassland which had no previous history of flooding. Intact soil mesocosms (Eutric Cambisol) 1 kg weight were subjected to a simulated long-term spring flood (15 °C, 2 months) and maintained in the light with above ground indigenous vegetation (Lolium perenne L.) or dark with and without indigenous vegetation to simulate different flood typologies. In comparison to a no-flood control treatment, nutrient cycling, water quality, air quality (greenhouse gas emissions), habitat provision and biological population regulation shifts were evaluated. Flooding induced a rapid release of nutrients into the soil solution and overlying floodwater, resulting in potential nutrient losses up to 15 mg Fe, 16 mg NH4+, 360 mg DOC and 28 mg DON, per mesocosm. The presence of plants increased the rate of nutrient release (especially P), with the effects magnified when light transmission through the floodwater was restricted (1.3 mg P vs 0.2 mg P, per mesocosm). Flooding induced a rapid decline in redox potential and subsequent production of CH4, especially in the darkened treatments (10 and between 11 and 16 times higher than the control, without and with light restrictions, respectively). Upon removal of the floodwater, the accumulated NH4+ was nitrified leading to a shift in greenhouse gas emissions, from CH4 to N2O emissions. N2O was only significantly produced in the mesocosms kept under light restrictions (13 times higher than in other two treatments). Flooding eliminated earthworms, reduced grass production after soil recovery (from 28 g for control mesocosms to 11 g and <1 g for flooded mesocosms without and with light restrictions, respectively). Soil microbial biomass was also reduced (up to a 22–27% of the total PLFAs) and flooding induced shifts in microbial community structure, particularly a loss of soil fungi. The soil fungi content quickly recovered (4 weeks) when light was not restricted during the flood period, however, no such recovery was seen in the darkened treatments. Overall, we conclude that extreme flood events cause rapid and profound changes in soil function. Both the impact of the flooding and the time to recover is exacerbated when light is restricted (e.g. in sediment laden floodwater). In addition, our results suggest that the presence of flood-resilient plants can mitigate against some of the negative impacts of flooding on soil functioning.

Incorporating soil ecosystem services into urban planning: status, challenges and opportunities

ContextTraditionally soils have not received much attention in urban planning. For this, tools are needed that can both be understood both by soil scientists and urban planners.PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to enhance the role of soil knowledge in urban planning practice, through the following objectives: (1) identifying the role soil plays in recent urban plans; (2) analysing the ecosystem services and indicators used in soil science in an urban context; and (3) inferring the main challenges and opportunities to integrate soil into urban planning.MethodsSeven urban plans and reports of world cities that include sustainability goals were analysed using text-mining and qualitative analysis, with a critical view on the inclusion of soil-related concepts. Secondly, the contribution of soil science to urban planning was assessed with an overview of case studies in the past decade that focus on soil-related ecosystem services in urban context.ResultsThe results show an overall weak attention to soil and soil-related ecosystem services in the implementation and monitoring phases of urban plans. The majority of soil science case studies uses a haphazard approach to measure ecosystem service indicators which may not capture the ecosystem services appropriately and hence lack relevance for urban planning.ConclusionsEven though the most urban plans assessed recognize soil as a key resource, most of them fail to integrate indicators to measure or monitor soil-related functions. There is a need to develop soil-related ecosystem services that can be easily integrated and understood by other fields.

SOIL QUALITY ATTRIBUTES RELATED TO URBANIZATION IN BRAZILIAN WATERSHED

In this study we investigated the variation of soil attributes according to urban-related land cover categories. The study was carried out in an urbanized watershed located in the Brazilian subtropical region (Sorocaba Municipality, São Paulo). Soil samples were collected considering the land cover category for analysis of physical, chemical and isotopic attributes. The land cover influenced the soils attributes. Soils from wooded and grassed areas presented significant differences, especially for values of C isotopes. Soil bulk density was significantly altered. According to considered land cover mosaic in the study, we estimated 10,241.28 tons of C stored in the thickness 20 cm of the watershed (whole area), and this amount is almost a half of the total potential of C storing in the watershed. We stress that projects of planned land cover should effectively implemented in urbanized regions to effectively contribute in storing more C and improving the soil-related ecosystem services.

Soil-related ecosystem services trade-off analysis for sustainable biodiesel production

There have been strong calls globally to improve the sustainability of biodiesel production from oilseeds. Nevertheless, there is a lack of robust methodologies that are able to depict the local impacts of intensive feedstock production on soil properties and functions. The aim of this study is to quantify and map the potential biodiesel production from oilseed (e.g. soybean, sunflower and rapeseed), and understand possible trade-offs with other soil-related Ecosystem Services (ESs) such as i) habitat for soil organisms (supporting service), ii) soil carbon storage (regulating service), iii) groundwater quality protection (regulating service) and iv) food crops (provisioning service). This method is tested on current intensive agricultural areas of the Veneto region plain of Northern Italy. The results suggest that the study area has a sustainable biodiesel production potential of 20.7 dam3 per year, which is only 52% of the regional target for the year 2020. The areas that are currently under other annual crops (primarily cereals and maize) can also have a significant further contribution that if exploited would greatly exceed the regional target. This finding indicates that achieving the regional target will be impossible without having significant trade-offs with other soil-related ES or causing land use change. The proposed methodology could provide a tool that could be integrated within (and potentially improve the effectiveness of) biofuel certification schemes, strategic environmental assessments of renewable energy pathways, and regional energy plans.

Operationalizing ecosystem services for the mitigation of soil threats: A proposed framework

Despite numerous research efforts over the last decades, integrating the concept of ecosystem services into land management decision-making continues to pose considerable challenges. Researchers have developed many different frameworks to operationalize the concept, but these are often specific to a certain issue and each has their own definitions and understandings of particular terms. Based on a comprehensive review of the current scientific debate, the EU FP7 project RECARE proposes an adapted framework for soil-related ecosystem services that is suited for practical application in the prevention and remediation of soil degradation across Europe. We have adapted existing frameworks by integrating components from soil science while attempting to introduce a consistent terminology that is understandable to a variety of stakeholders. RECARE aims to assess how soil threats and prevention and remediation measures affect ecosystem services. Changes in the natural capital's properties influence soil processes, which support the provision of ecosystem services. The benefits produced by these ecosystem services are explicitly or implicitly valued by individuals and society. This can influence decision- and policymaking at different scales, potentially leading to a societal response, such as improved land management. The proposed ecosystem services framework will be applied by the RECARE project in a transdisciplinary process. It will assist in singling out the most beneficial land management measures and in identifying trade-offs and win–win situations resulting from and impacted by European policies. The framework thus reflects the specific contributions soils make to ecosystem services and helps reveal changes in ecosystem services caused by soil management and policies impacting on soil. At the same time, the framework is simple and robust enough for practical application in assessing soil threats and their management with stakeholders at various levels.

Farmers’ Perspectives on Vital Soil-related Ecosystem Services in Intensive Swidden Farming Systems in the Peruvian Amazon

A growing dilemma is how to conserve Amazonian forest while allowing local people to secure their livelihoods. Small-scale swidden farming in Amazonia is entirely dependent on the continued provision of ecosystem services (ES) that generate the conditions for agriculture. This study identified soil-related ES needed for, and enhanced by, productive swidden systems from the farmer’s perspective. Workshops in six farming communities in northeastern Peru discussed various land uses, swidden systems that continue to be productive, and swidden systems on degraded land. The participating farmers noted changes in their production systems and described the ES (or lack thereof) in terms of soil quality, crop production quantity and quality, burning practices, forest regeneration, and farming skill. The central elements described in farmers’ own strategies for managing soil-related ES were fallow management for biomass production and crop diversity, factors identified as central to future ES management work in established agricultural areas in Amazonia.