Soil In Vietnam Research Articles

Isolation, Selection, and Biological Evaluation for Bacteria that Fix Nitrogen and Produce Indole-3-Acetic Acid from Paddy Soils in Vietnam

Introduction/Background Acidic soils are limiting the production of crops and indirectly harming the environment due to the use of nitrogen (N) chemical fertilizer. Therefore, the current study aims to isolate a promising N2-fixing candidate to solve this issue in some communes of Phu Luong District, Thai Nguyen Province, Vietnam. Materials and Methods The bacteria were isolated using the Ashby medium. The IAA generation and nitrogen fixation were assessed using spectroscopy. The selected bacteria were tested at temperatures ranging from 28°C to 42°C and pH levels of 4.0 to 9.0. As a result, the Box-Behnken model yielded a growth equation. The API kit test was used to measure the biochemical properties of the selected bacteria. Results The result demonstrated that there were ten nitrogen-fixing bacteria (NFB) isolates with capacities of N2 fixation and IAA production at 2.35–24.61 and 0.00–119.13 µg/ml. Among them, the NL3 strain was the best strain. The optimum condition to grow the NL3 strain was calculated as 5.44 days at pH 7.10 and temperature of 32.18°C to reach a bacterial density of 9.77929×108 CFU/ml. In addition, the NL3 strain was identified as an Azotobacter species. The genomic analysis revealed that the genome of Azotobacter sp. NL3 was nearly 5.4 Mb long and contained 45 N2 fixation-relating genes and 7 IAA production-relating genes. Conclusion Not only can this study provide insight into the features of Azotobacter spp., but it also introduces a potent candidate that can improve soil health and crop yield by fixing N2 and producing IAA in order to limit the use of N chemical fertilizer for a sustainable agriculture. Therefore, the selected bacterial strain should be further tested under the local field conditions and subsequently commercialized as a biofertilizer.

Isolation, screening, and identification of thermophilic lignocellulolytic fungi from agricultural soil in Vietnam

Isolation, screening, and identification of thermophilic lignocellulolytic fungi from agricultural soil in Vietnam

Buttress wall in limiting wall deformation caused by deep excavation: A case study for colluvial soil in Vietnam

The objective of this study is to assess the impact of utilizing a BW (Buttress wall) to control the deflection of a diaphragm wall in colluvial soil conditions in Vietnam. The physical and mechanical properties of the colluvial layers are evaluated using data closely monitored during a specific project, serving as validation for 3D numerical simulations utilizing the Hardening Soil Model. The analysis results closely match the field monitoring data, which has tested the accuracy of the simulation model. This forms the basis for further investigations into the dimensional parameters of BW walls, including length, thickness, and spacing between them. The results obtained from the parametric study demonstrate that altering the wall length and spacing between BWwalls significantly limits the deflection of the diaphragm wall, while changes in thickness have a negligible effect. Through the 3D numerical simulations, a linear relationship between the maximum wall deflection and parameters such as wall length and spacing between BW walls has been established.

Bioconcentration and translocation of elements from soil to vegetables and associated health risk

This study provides valuable insights into the bio-concentration and translocation of elements from soil to plants, addressing potential health risks associated by the neutron activation analysis. The results showed that arsenic (As) and Zinc (Zn) concentrations in the soil were higher than national regulations for heavy metals in agricultural soil in Vietnam but remained within permissible limits recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Different plant species show varying affinities for the accumulation of elements, indicating their potential use for specific remediation purposes. Rainbow beet (Beta vulgaris) were considered for phytoextraction of cesium (Cs), chromium (Cr), and aluminum (Al). Bioconcentration factors (BCF) for both root and shoot tissues for all elements were lower than unity (except manganese (Mn 1.04)). This suggests that green lollo rossa has the potential to accumulate Mn in its root system. The target hazard quotient ranged from 0.01 for antimony (Sb) to 0.26 for chromium (Cr). This study indicated that the vegetables investigated in the study area do not pose a risk to consumers for the analyzed potential toxic elements.

Physical and Numerical Models of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls Using Self-Fabricated Steel Reinforcement Grids Applied to Cohesive Soil in Vietnam

Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls have been widely applied in construction to maintain the stability of high embankments. In Vietnam, imported reinforcement materials are expensive; thus, finding locally available materials for MSE walls is beneficial. This study examines the behavior of an MSE wall using local reinforcement materials in Danang, Vietnam. The MSE was reinforced by self-fabricated galvanized steel grids using CB300V steel with 3 cm ribs. The backfill soil was sandy clay soil from the local area with a low cohesion. A full-scale model with full instrumentation was installed to investigate the distribution of tensile forces along the reinforcement layers. The highest load that caused the wall to collapse due to internal instability (reinforcement rupture) was 302 kN/m2, which is 15 times greater than the design load of 20 kN/m2. The failure surface within the reinforced soil had a parabolic sliding shape that was similar to the theoretical studies. At the failure load level, the maximum lateral displacement at the top of the wall facing was small (3.9 mm), significantly lower than the allowable displacement for a retaining wall. Furthermore, a numerical model using FLAC software 7.0 was applied to simulate the performance of the MSE wall. The modeling results were in good agreement with the physical model. Thus, self-fabricated galvanized steel grids could confidently be used in combination with the local backfill soil for MSE walls.

Research and evaluate the potential of rice husk ash and rice straw ash for soil improvement in Vietnam

Rice husk ash and rice straw ash are common agricultural wastes in developing countries. Currently, utilizing these wastes in the construction sector such as soil improvement and cement concrete production is a trend in many areas around the world. In Vietnam, with a rice production of more than 40 million tons/year, millions of tons of rice husk ash and straw ash can be generated. This is an abundant and a cheap material source. This article will research and evaluate the potential of rice husk ash and straw ash for soft soil improvement in Vietnam. Research results show that straw ash and rice husk ash are materials having high pozzolan activity. Various studies in the world and some studies in Vietnam showed that rice husk ash and straw ash not only improve some physical and mechanical properties of soil but can also partially replace the amount of binder. Vietnam has different types of soft soil and construction activities are increasing, so the demand for improving soft soil is also increasing. In which, improving soil with cement binder is one of the most popular methods. Therefore, rice husk ash and rice straw ash have great potential to combine with cement in improving soft soil in Vietnam. Utilizing these wastes not only helps reduce the negative impact their causes on the environment but also helps improve construction quality and reduce construction costs.

Preliminary results on microplastic pollution from agricultural soil in Vietnam: Distribution, characterization, and ecological risk assessment

Microplastics (MPs) have been extensively studied in aquatic systems; however, their presence in general agricultural systems and in particular, soil still needs comprehensive understanding. This study conducted a field survey at 25 sites to investigate the abundance of MPs in agricultural soil. The MPs in these soil samples were separated using sieves and filters by the density separation method with NaCl solution (d = 1.2 g/cm3). The density of MPs in agricultural soils ranged from 1,700 items/kg to 38,800 items/kg, with an average of 11,716 ±10,726 items/kg. The black-colored MPs were found to be dominant, followed by white, purple, red, and blue. The fibers represented most of the MPs' shapes observed in this research (77.9±17.4%). MPs in agricultural soil samples were tiny particles with sizes of <1,000 µm and 1,000-2,000 µm. A significant difference was observed in the concentration of MPs in locations near and far from residential areas and manufacturing facilities. The average concentration of MPs in the soils adjacent to the residential and manufacturing facilities and near the agricultural solid waste collection sites was 21,471±12,729 items/kg and 20,188±4,403 items/kg, much higher than in distant these locations at 4,418±1,573 items/kg. These results suggest that domestic, industrial, and agricultural activities could contribute to MP pollution in agricultural soil. The ecological dangers MPs pose in terrestrial and aquatic environments have drawn much attention from the scientific community. This work represented the first effort to comprehend the ecological risk of MPs on selected samples of Vietnamese agricultural soil. According to the Pollution Load Index (PLI) values, most agricultural soil samples in this study were contaminated with MPs at hazard level IV. The potential ecological risk index (PERI) values of agricultural soil samples from nearby residential, industrial, or agricultural solid waste areas indicated a higher ecological risk.

Bacterial distribution in long-term dioxin-contaminated soil in Vietnam and novel dioxin degrading bacteria isolated from Phu Cat airbase

ABSTRACT Herbicide-/dioxin-contaminated contamination in Vietnam is an environmental issue nowadays, despite Agent Orange being sprayed a long time ago. High levels of dioxin in military airbases cause hot spots of dioxin contamination sites in which potential biological source of microorganisms has developed. Understanding microorganism structure in contaminated soil is crucial for the bioremediation of the sites. Illumina Miseq platform was applied to sequence V3-V4 amplicons of long-term contaminated communities to evaluate the bacterial distribution. Contaminated soil from different regions Bien Hoa and Phu Cat showed a low level of connectedness; the species richness of Bien Hoa was much higher than that of Phu Cat. However, they shared similarities in the most abundant bacterial phyla: Actinobacteriota, Chloroflexi, Proteobacteria, Acidobacteriota, and Planctomycetota. Several xenobiotic-degrading genera were found, such as Terrabacter, Nocardioides, and Streptomyces of Actinobacteriota; Bacillus, Paenibacillus, and Clostridium of Firmicutes; Burkholderia, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas and Klebsiella of Proteobacteria. Seven bacterial isolates grew on dioxin-containing medium belonging to Firmicutes, they were classified in order Bacillales, in which two strains belong to Paenibacillaceae, and the rests are in Bacillaceae. Two isolates removed more than 80% of total toxicity (mainly 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin); strain PC5 is the first dioxin-degrading bacterium recognized in the genus Neobacillus.

Correlating biodegradation kinetics of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin to the dynamics of microbial communities originating from soil in Vietnam contaminated with herbicides and dioxins.

We studied the succession of bacterial communities during the biodegradation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). The communities originated from a mesocosm with soil from Bien Hoa airbase in Vietnam heavily contaminated with herbicides and dioxins. They were grown in defined media with different carbon and Gibbs energy sources and 2,3,7,8-TCDD. Cultures with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as the sole carbon and energy source degraded about 95% of 2,3,7,8-TCDD within 60 days of cultivation. Those with an additional 1 mM of vanillin did that in roughly 90 days. Further 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing showed that the increase in relative abundance of members belonging to the genera Bordetella, Sphingomonas, Proteiniphilum, and Rhizobium correlated to increased biodegradation of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in these cultures. A higher concentration of vanillin slowed down the biodegradation rate. Addition of alternative carbon and Gibbs energy sources, such as amino acids, sodium lactate and sodium acetate, even stopped the degradation of 2,3,7,8-TCDD completely. Bacteria from the genera Bordetella, Achromobacter, Sphingomonas and Pseudomonas dominated most of the cultures, but the microbial profiles also significantly differed between cultures as judged by non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analyses. Our study indicates that 2,3,7,8-TCDD degradation may be stimulated by bacterial communities preadapted to a certain degree of starvation with respect to the carbon and energy source. It also reveals the succession and abundance of defined bacterial genera in the degradation process.

Correlating Biodegradation Kinetics of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4,5-T) to the Dynamics of Microbial Communities Originating From Soil in Vietnam Contaminated With Herbicides

We determined the degradation rates of the herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T by two different bacterial communities. One of these originated from soil heavily contaminated with herbicides from Bien Hoa airbase, the other from the same soil but amended with additional carbon and Gibbs energy sources. The community from the contaminated, but untreated, soil degraded both 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T within 5 days of cultivation. The one from the amended soil, however, hardly showed any degradation of the compounds throughout 23 days of cultivation. After refreshment of the medium and prolonged culturing, however, this community degraded both herbicides within 25 days with progressively increasing rates. nMDS analysis revealed a highly significant differentiation pattern of the two communities. Cultures inoculated with amended soil showed a significant increase of Bacillus and Paenibacillus upon prolonged exposure to the herbicides. The succession in the culture from untreated soil, on the other hand, was dominated by species from the Proteobacteria. We were able to isolate two of them and they were shown to be related to Bordetella petrii and Sphingomonas histidinilytica, successively. Subsequent PCR analyses of their DNA revealed the presence of key genes involved in the degradation of the herbicides. This study provides a more fundamental understanding of the biodegradation of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T by displaying part of the bacterial community succession during their breakdown allowing a comprehensive view on potential key degraders.

Application of Artificial Intelligence to Determined Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement-Stabilized Soil in Vietnam

Cement stabilized soil is one of the commonly used as ground reinforcement solutions in geotechnical engineering. In this study, the main object was to apply three machine learning (ML) methods namely gradient boosting (GB), artificial neural network (ANN) and support vector machine (SVM) to predict unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of cement stabilized soil. Soil samples were collected at Hai Duong city, Vietnam. A total of 216 soil–cement samples were mixed in the laboratory and compressed to determine the UCS. This data set is divided into two parts of the training data set (80%) and testing set (20%) to build and test the model, respectively. To verify the performance of ML model, various criteria named correlation coefficient (R), mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean square error (RMSE) were used. The results show that all three ML models were effective methods to predict the UCS of cement-stabilized soil. Amongst three model used in this study, optimized ANN model provided superior performance compare to two others models with performance indicator R = 0.925, RMSE = 419.82 and MAE = 292.2 for testing part. This study can provide an effective tool to quickly predict the UCS of cement stabilized soil with high accuracy.

Prediction of unconfined compressive strength of cement-stabilized sandy soil in Vietnam using artificial neural networks (ANNs) model

ABSTRACT The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of cement-stabilized soil depends on the particle size distribution, the soil chemistry composition, the cement content, the water content, and the curing time. Determining the UCS of soil-cement material is an important task in the design and construction of infrastructure supported on marginal soils that require ground improvement. In this research, the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) technique was applied to generate the UCS prediction model in relation to the selected parameters. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the range of the contribution of variables. As a result, a statistical analysis shows that the proposed model developed in this study is accurate and reliable with a high correlation coefficient and low root mean squared errors. The UCS prediction model also satisfies well the external criteria; hence it illustrates the great potential of the predictive ability of the ANN technique for geotechnical parameters. The ANN-based model shows that the cement content and the percentage of the soil particle passing sieve 0.5 mm are the most important variables affecting the UCS value. The research results could be used for estimating the UCS of cement-stabilized sandy soil in situ and laboratory conditions.

Elucidation and Identification of an Antifungal Compound from Pseudomonas aeruginosa DA3.1 Isolated from Soil in Vietnam

Background: Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia sp. fungi have been always threats to short-term crops. In Vietnam, corn and soybean suffer serious losses annually. Therefore, it is necessary to utilize an environmentally friendly antifungal compound that is highly effective against phytopathogenic fungi. Pseudomonas sp. is a popular soil bacterial strain and well known for its high antifungal activity. Objectives: This study was carried out to evaluate and assess the antifungal activity of a local bacterial strain namely DA3.1 that was later identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This would be strong scientific evidence to develop an environmentally friendly biocide from a local microorganism strain for commercial use. Methods: The antifungal compound was purified from ethyl acetate extraction of deproteinized cell culture broth by a silica gel column (CH2Cl2/MeOH (0% - 10% MeOH)). The purity of the isolated compound was determined by HPLC, and its molecular structure was elucidated using spectroscopic experiments including one-dimensional (1D) (1H NMR, 13C NMR, DEPT) and two-dimensional (2D) (HMBC and HSQC) spectra. The activity of the purified compound against Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia sp. fungi was measured using the PDA-disk diffusion method, and its growth-promoting ability was evaluated using the seed germination test of corn and soybean. Results: The results showed that the antifungal compound produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa DA3.1 had a retention factor (Rf) of 0.86 on thin layer chromatography (TLC). Based on the evidence of spectral data including proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR), distortionless enhancement by polarization transfer (DEPT), heteronuclear multiple bond correlation (HMBC), and heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC), the chemical structure was elucidated as phenazine-1-carboxylic. The purified compound showed inhibitory activity against F. oxysporum and R. solani and exhibited the ability of the germination of corn and soybean seeds. The results revealed the benefit of native P. aeruginosa DA3.1 and phenazine-1-carboxylic acid for use as a biocontrol agent, as well as a plant growth promoter. Conclusions: The antifungal compound isolated from local Pseudomonas DA3.1 was identified as phenazine-1-carboxylic acid that posed high antifungal activity and was a plant germination booster.

HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION OF A GENE ENCODING BIPHENYL 2,3-DIOXYGENASE FROM BURKHOLDERIA CEPACIA IN ESCHERICHIA COLI

Biphenyl 2,3-dioxygenase (BphA) is an enzyme that participates in initiation step of the pathway of biphenyl degradation in bacteria. Biphenyl is an aromatic hydrocarbon including two benzene rings that causes a serious environmental pollution. This report presents the preliminary results on the cloning and expression of BphA gene of B. cepacia strains DF2 and DF4 which were isolated from dioxin contaminated soil in Vietnam. The coding DNA sequences of BphA genes are 897 bp long and 99% identical. Recombinant BphA enzyme (33 kDa) has strongly expressed in E. coli M15 after induction of 0.5 mM IPTG for 4 h at 37ºC.

Characterization of collagenase found in the nonpathogenic bacterium Lysinibacillus sphaericus VN3.

High collagenolytic activity has been detected in pathogenic bacteria. Collagenase plays an essential role in the invasion step in animals and humans. In this study, we characterized collagenase found in the nonpathogenic bacterium Lysinibacillus sphaericus VN3, which was isolated from soil in Vietnam. The collagenase activity of the purified enzyme was strongly inhibited by Cu2+, but it was significantly increased by Zn2+. The purified enzyme with a molecular mass of approximately 110 kDa exhibited collagenolytic, gelatinolytic, and caseinolytic activity. The kinetic studies showed that this enzyme had greater hydrolyzing activity toward collagen and gelatin compared with casein. Based on the ratio V max/K m, collagen is likely to be the best substrate among three proteins. We found that this collagenase could digest small pieces of bovine skin and tendon into a collagen solution. Interestingly, at pH 6.0-8.0, the soluble collagen could form a collagen membrane, which is useful as a wound-healing biomaterial.

APPLICATION THE POINT FOUNDATION (PF) METHOD FOR SOFT SOIL IMPROVEMENT: A CASE STUDY FROM VETNAM

The point foundation method is the head enlarged cement deep mixing columns with high-quality control which can be used for soft ground improvement. The article aims to present the application of this method to treat soft soil for the foundation of Samse Vina factory, Ninh Binh province. The thickness of soft soil varies from 5.4 m to 7.4 m with high compressibility and low shear strength. Thus, point foundation was used to improve this layer. The prediction methods of soil bearing capacity and the settlement on the point foundation were calculated. After the treatment of soil, the unconfined compression strength of the point foundation column was determined and the static compression test for the point foundation column was also performed. The research results show that this method can significantly reduce the settlement of shallow footing and improved the bearing capacity of the soil. The final settlement of shallow footing was smaller than 2.54 cm and the bearing capacity of soil treatment can be satisfied with the requirement of construction building. This is a successful case of the application of point foundation to improve soft soil in Vietnam.

Structural analysis of an aluminum-binding capsular polysaccharide produced by Acidocella aluminiidurans strain AL46, an aluminum-tolerant bacterium isolated from plant roots in a highly acidic swamp in actual acid sulfate soil

Acid sulfate soil is found throughout Southeast Asia, and its strong acidity (pH 2–4) is accompanied by various plant growth-inhibiting factors that can reduce crop production. Among these factors, aluminum elution from the soil due to soil acidity strongly inhibits crop growth and is particularly problematic for agricultural production. We previously isolated Acidocella aluminiidurans strain AL46, a highly aluminum-tolerant bacterium, from the rhizospheres of the grass Panicum repens, inhabiting the acid sulfate soil in Vietnam. To elucidate the mechanism underlying the high aluminum tolerance of strain AL46, in the present study, we investigated the aluminum-adsorption ability of strain AL46 surface polysaccharides and confirmed the strong adsorption ability of the capsular polysaccharide (AL46CPS). Based on this finding, we further determined the chemical structure of AL46CPS using 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy by conducting 2D DQF–COSY, TOCSY, HSQC, HMBC, and NOESY experiments. AL46CPS comprises a trisaccharide repeating unit with the following structure: [→2)-β-d-Rhap-(1 → 3)-α-d-Rhap-(1 → 2)-α-d-Rhap-(1→]n. These findings highlight the potential application of AL46CPS as a new aluminum-adsorbing substance in acidic environments to prevent crop loss.

Research on Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation of Vietnam’s Soft Soil

The horizontal coefficient of consolidation is the most important parameter for designing the improvement of soil soft by prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) combined with surcharge and vacuum preloading. This paper presents the experimental study on the horizontal coefficient of consolidation (ch) of some soft soils distributed in Vietnam. Thechvalue was determined by the laboratory test and CPTu dissipation test. The laboratory tests included the Rowe consolidation cell test and constant rate of strain consolidation with radial drainage test. Two types of consolidation laboratory tests were performed. The experimental results indicated that thechvalue is always larger than the vertical coefficient of consolidation of soil (cv). The ratio ofch/cvdepends on the consolidated pressure, type of soil, and the anisotropy of soil. The ratio ofch/cvis different in different types of soft soil in Vietnam. In the normally consolidated state, thech/cvratio ranges from 1.35 to 10.59. It was necessary to choose thechvalue at the consolidated stress level for calculating the PVD spacing.

Proposed Techniques to Supplement the Loss in Nutrient Cycling for Replanted Coffee Plantations in Vietnam

Nutrient cycling of the coffee ecosystem is often characterized by nutrient losses during the harvest, tree’s growth, leaching and erosion. The “Coffee Rejuvenation Strategies in Vietnam” has risked not being complete on schedule, with the low survival rate of seedlings on replanted soil, due to the nutrient loss and imbalance supplements after a long-term of monoculture and intensive cultivation. In this study, measures, including biochemical and organic treatments were applied to replanted coffee farm, in order to supplement the loss of nutrient cycling. Survival rate, growth indicators, and soil properties from the controls and treatments, were monitored and compared during the experimental periods. The results suggested the optimal tillage model as follow: Remove old coffee trees with their stumps and roots; liming 1.5 tons/ha; dry tillage soil for the first 6 months; Intercrop Mexican marigold (Tagetes erecta) with new coffee plants for the next 6 months; From the second year, apply 5 kg of microbial organic fertilizer /hole/year; bury 30 kg of green manure/hole/2–3 years; apply NPK fertilizers according to the governmental recommended procedure. This would be a proposed integrating tillage method to supplement the lost nutrients and restore the fertility of replanted coffee soil in Vietnam.

Modeling of Infiltration Characteristics by the Modified Kostiakov Method: A Case Study in Thuong River Alluvial Soil in Vietnam

The purpose of this study was to apply the modified Kostiakov method to determine the soil infiltration rate and permeated water amount of Thuong River alluvial soil for orange plantations in Lang Giang district, Bac Giang province, Vietnam. The soil particle size ranged from 0.02 to 2.00mm mainly found in the surface horizon (>77.7%). The soil was slightly acidic in the surface horizon, and highly acidic in the subsurface horizons (pHKCl from 3.42 to 4.79). The organic matter content of the surface horizon was mederate, while it was very low in the other horizons. The total nitrogen (N) content was low (0.15%) in the surface horizon and very low in the subsurface horizons (0.02-0.06%) while the available N was medium. The total phosphorus (P) content in the surface horizon was high (0.4%) and medium in the other horizons. Available P in the surface horizon was high (18.6mg per 100g soil) and decreased in lower depths to only 0.3mg per 100g soil in the deepest (5th) horizon. The total and available potassium measurements were very low. A filtration characteristic model was developed by using the modified Kostiakov method for alluvial soil. The constant values a, a, and b of the equation y = ata + b were 0.8035, 0.758, and 0.00346, respectively, which were smaller than 1. The average percentage difference between the actual and calculated values by the model was only 0.141%, indicating that the calculated values can accurately predict the actual data measurements in the field.